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   1 <html><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"><title>用知识共享创作</title><meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.79.1"></head><body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF"><div lang="zh-cn" class="book"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="idm1"></a>用知识共享创作</h1></div><div><div class="authorgroup"><div class="author"><h3 class="author"><span class="firstname">保罗</span> <span class="surname">Stacey</span></h3></div><div class="author"><h3 class="author"><span class="firstname">Sarah Hinchliff</span> <span class="surname">Pearson</span></h3></div></div></div><div><p class="copyright">版权 © 2017 Creative Commons</p></div><div><div class="legalnotice"><a name="idm18"></a><p>
   2     本书是在CC
   3 BY-SA许可下出版的，这意味着你可以为任何目的复制、重新发布、混音、转换和建立内容，甚至是商业性的，只要你给予适当的信用，提供许可证的链接，并说明是否进行了修改。如果您对材料进行再混合、转换或建立，您必须在与原版相同的许可证下发布您的贡献。许可证详情。<a class="ulink" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/" target="_top">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/</a>
   4   </p></div></div></div><hr></div><div class="dedication"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="dedication"></a></h1></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>我对非虚构新闻了解不多。.
   5 .我思考这些事情的方式，以及我可以做的事情是......。...像这样的文章是一个场合，看一个相当聪明但也相当平均的人更仔细地关注和思考各种不同的东西，比我们大多数人在日常生活中都有机会。</p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
   6     \textit{  大卫·福斯特·华莱士 }
   7     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>目录</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="preface"><a href="#foreword">前言</a></span></dt><dt><span class="preface"><a href="#introduction">介绍</a></span></dt><dt><span class="part"><a href="#the-big-picture">I. The Big Picture</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-new-world-of-digital-commons">1. 数字共享的新世界</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#how-to-be-made-with-creative-commons">2. How to Be Made with Creative Commons</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-creative-commons-licenses">3. The Creative Commons Licenses</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="part"><a href="#the-case-studies">II. The Case Studies</a></span></dt><dd><dl><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#arduino">4. Arduino</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#artica">5. Ártica</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#blender-institute">6. Blender Institute</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#cards-against-humanity">7. Cards Against Humanity</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-conversation">8. The Conversation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#cory-doctorow">9. Cory Doctorow</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#figshare">10. Figshare</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#figure.nz">11. Figure.NZ</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#knowledge-unlatched">12. Knowledge Unlatched</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#lumen-learning">13. Lumen Learning</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#jonathan-mann">14. Jonathan Mann</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#noun-project">15. Noun Project</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#open-data-institute">16. Open Data Institute</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#opendesk">17. OpenDesk</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#openstax">18. OpenStax</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#amanda-palmer">19. Amanda Palmer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#plos-public-library-of-science">20. PLOS (Public Library of Science)</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#rijksmuseum">21. Rijksmuseum</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#shareable">22. Shareable</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#siyavula">23. Siyavula</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#sparkfun">24. SparkFun</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#teachaids">25. TeachAIDS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#tribe-of-noise">26. Tribe of Noise</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#wikimedia-foundation">27. Wikimedia Foundation</a></span></dt></dl></dd><dt><span class="appendix"><a href="#bibliography">A. Bibliography</a></span></dt><dt><span class="appendix"><a href="#acknowledgments">B. Acknowledgments</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="list-of-figures"><p><b>插图清单</b></p><dl><dt>1.1. <a href="#fig-1">Enterprise engagement with commons, state and market.</a></dt><dt>1.2. <a href="#fig-2">Four aspects of resource management</a></dt><dt>1.3. <a href="#fig-3">How the market, commons and state concieve of resources.</a></dt><dt>1.4. <a href="#fig-4">In preindustrialized society.</a></dt><dt>1.5. <a href="#fig-5">The commons is gradually superseded by the state.</a></dt><dt>1.6. <a href="#fig-6">How the market, the state and the commons look today.</a></dt></dl></div><div class="preface"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="foreword"></a>前言</h1></div></div></div><p>
   8     三年前，就在我被聘为创意共享公司的首席执行官之后，我在多伦多格拉德斯通酒店的酒店酒吧会见了科里·多克托。作为CC最知名的支持者之一——作为一名使用CC分享其作品的作家，他也有着成功的职业生涯——我告诉他，我认为CC在定义和推进开放的商业模式方面可以发挥作用。他好心地不同意，并称通过CC<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">追求可行的商业模式是一条红鱼。</span>”</span>
   9   </p><p>
  10     He was, in a way, completely correct—those who make things with Creative
  11 Commons have ulterior motives, as Paul Stacey explains in this book:
  12 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Regardless of legal status, they all have a social mission. Their
  13 primary reason for being is to make the world a better place, not to
  14 profit. Money is a means to a social end, not the end itself.</span>”</span>
  15   </p><p>
  16     在关于Cory Doctorow的案例研究中，Sarah Hinchliff Pearson引用了Cory在他的《Information Doesn't
  17 Want to Be
  18 Free》一书中的话。<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">因为你想发财而进入艺术界，就像因为你想发财而买彩票一样。它可能会成功，但几乎肯定不会成功。当然，虽然总有人中彩票：</span>”</span>。
  19   </p><p>
  20     今天，版权就像一张彩票--每个人都有一张，但几乎没有人中奖。他们没有告诉你的是，如果你选择分享你的作品，回报可以是显著的和持久的。
  21 本书充满了那些承担比我们花两块钱买彩票更大风险的人的故事，他们反而从追求自己的激情和生活价值中获得了回报。
  22   </p><p>
  23     所以这不是钱的问题。另外：它是。找到继续创造和分享的方法，往往需要一定的收入。  Cards Against Humanity的Max
  24 Temkin在他们的案例研究中说得最好。<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">我们做笑话和游戏不是为了赚钱 我们赚钱是为了能做更多的笑话和游戏</span>”</span>。
  25   </p><p>
  26     共享創意的重點是建立一個充滿活力、可用的公共空間，由合作和感恩推動。促进合作的社区是我们战略的核心。有鉴于此，Creative
  27 Commons开始了这个图书项目。在Paul和Sarah的带领下，这个项目开始定义和推进最佳的开放商业模式。
  28 Paul和Sarah是撰写《共享创意制造》的理想作者。
  29   </p><p>
  30     保罗梦想着一个新的创意和创新模式能够战胜当今资本主义最糟糕的不平等和匮乏的未来。他被创客社区之间的人类联系的力量所驱动。他比大多数人看得更长远，这使他成为一个更好的教育家，一个有洞察力的研究者，也是一个熟练的园丁。他的声音沉稳冷静，传递出一种激情，激励着他的同事和社区。
  31   </p><p>
  32     莎拉是最好的律师--一个真正的倡导者，她相信人的善良，相信集体行为改变世界的力量。在过去的一年里，我看到Sarah为一场政治活动投入了大量的资金，但最终却没有如她所愿，这让她心碎不已。今天，她比以往任何时候都更加坚定地将自己的价值观念展现在袖子上。我总是可以依靠Sarah推动Creative
  33 Commons专注于我们的影响力--让主要的事情成为主要的事情。她很务实，注重细节，而且很聪明。在我的团队中，没有人比我更喜欢与她辩论。
  34   </p><p>
  35     作为合著者，保罗和莎拉完美地互补了对方。他们一起研究、分析、争论，作为一个团队，有时一起，有时独立。他们带着激情和好奇心投入到研究和写作中，并对建设公共资源和与世界分享的工作深表尊重。他们对新的想法保持开放的态度，包括他们最初的理论需要完善或可能完全错误的可能性。
  36 这是一种勇气，它使本书变得更好，是一本有见地、诚实和有用的书。
  37   </p><p>
  38     从一开始，CC就希望以开放合作的原则和价值观来开发这个项目。这本书的资金、开发、研究和写作都是公开的。在CC
  39 BY-SA许可下，它被公开分享，任何人都可以使用、混音或改编，并注明来源。它本身就是一个开放商业模式的例子。
  40   </p><p>
  41     在2015年8月的31天里，Sarah以点带面地组织并执行了一场Kickstarter活动，为这本书筹集了核心资金。其余的资金由CC慷慨的捐赠者和支持者提供。最终，它成为Kickstarter上最成功的图书项目之一，粉碎了两个延伸目标，并吸引了超过1600名捐赠者--其中大部分是Creative
  42 Commons的新支持者。
  43   </p><p>
  44     Paul and Sarah worked openly throughout the project, publishing the plans,
  45 drafts, case studies, and analysis, early and often, and they engaged
  46 communities all over the world to help write this book. As their opinions
  47 diverged and their interests came into focus, they divided their voices and
  48 decided to keep them separate in the final product. Working in this way
  49 requires both humility and self-confidence, and without question it has made
  50 Made with Creative Commons a better project.
  51   </p><p>
  52     Those who work and share in the commons are not typical creators.  They are
  53 part of something greater than themselves, and what they offer us all is a
  54 profound gift. What they receive in return is gratitude and a community.
  55   </p><p>
  56     Jonathan Mann, who is profiled in this book, writes a song a day.  When I
  57 reached out to ask him to write a song for our Kickstarter (and to offer
  58 himself up as a Kickstarter benefit), he agreed immediately. Why would he
  59 agree to do that? Because the commons has collaboration at its core, and
  60 community as a key value, and because the CC licenses have helped so many to
  61 share in the ways that they choose with a global audience.
  62   </p><p>
  63     Sarah writes, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons thrive
  64 when community is built around what they do. This may mean a community
  65 collaborating together to create something new, or it may simply be a
  66 collection of like-minded people who get to know each other and rally around
  67 common interests or beliefs. To a certain extent, simply being Made with
  68 Creative Commons automatically brings with it some element of community, by
  69 helping connect you to like-minded others who recognize and are drawn to the
  70 values symbolized by using CC.</span>”</span> Amanda Palmer, the other musician
  71 profiled in the book, would surely add this from her case study:
  72 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is no more satisfying end goal than having someone tell you
  73 that what you do is genuinely of value to them.</span>”</span>
  74   </p><p>
  75     This is not a typical business book. For those looking for a recipe or a
  76 roadmap, you might be disappointed. But for those looking to pursue a social
  77 end, to build something great through collaboration, or to join a powerful
  78 and growing global community, they’re sure to be satisfied. Made with
  79 Creative Commons offers a world-changing set of clearly articulated values
  80 and principles, some essential tools for exploring your own business
  81 opportunities, and two dozen doses of pure inspiration.
  82   </p><p>
  83     In a 1996 Stanford Law Review article <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Zones of
  84 Cyberspace</span>”</span>, CC founder Lawrence Lessig wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Cyberspace is a
  85 place. People live there. They experience all the sorts of things that they
  86 experience in real space, there. For some, they experience more. They
  87 experience this not as isolated individuals, playing some high tech computer
  88 game; they experience it in groups, in communities, among strangers, among
  89 people they come to know, and sometimes like.</span>”</span>
  90   </p><p>
  91     I’m incredibly proud that Creative Commons is able to publish this book for
  92 the many communities that we have come to know and like.  I’m grateful to
  93 Paul and Sarah for their creativity and insights, and to the global
  94 communities that have helped us bring it to you.  As CC board member
  95 Johnathan Nightingale often says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s all made of people.</span>”</span>
  96   </p><p>
  97     这就是“用知识共享创作”的真正价值。
  98   </p><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p></p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
  99     \textit{ Ryan Merkley, CEO, Creative Commons}
 100     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div></div><div class="preface"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="introduction"></a>介绍</h1></div></div></div><p>
 101     This book shows the world how sharing can be good for business—but with a
 102 twist.
 103   </p><p>
 104     We began the project intending to explore how creators, organizations, and
 105 businesses make money to sustain what they do when they share their work
 106 using Creative Commons licenses. Our goal was not to identify a formula for
 107 business models that use Creative Commons but instead gather fresh ideas and
 108 dynamic examples that spark new, innovative models and help others follow
 109 suit by building on what already works. At the onset, we framed our
 110 investigation in familiar business terms. We created a blank <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open
 111 business model canvas,</span>”</span> an interactive online tool that would help
 112 people design and analyze their business model.
 113   </p><p>
 114     Through the generous funding of Kickstarter backers, we set about this
 115 project first by identifying and selecting a diverse group of creators,
 116 organizations, and businesses who use Creative Commons in an integral
 117 way—what we call being Made with Creative Commons. We interviewed them and
 118 wrote up their stories. We analyzed what we heard and dug deep into the
 119 literature.
 120   </p><p>
 121     But as we did our research, something interesting happened. Our initial way
 122 of framing the work did not match the stories we were hearing.
 123   </p><p>
 124     Those we interviewed were not typical businesses selling to consumers and
 125 seeking to maximize profits and the bottom line.  Instead, they were sharing
 126 to make the world a better place, creating relationships and community
 127 around the works being shared, and generating revenue not for unlimited
 128 growth but to sustain the operation.
 129   </p><p>
 130     They often didn’t like hearing what they do described as an open business
 131 model. Their endeavor was something more than that.  Something
 132 different. Something that generates not just economic value but social and
 133 cultural value. Something that involves human connection. Being Made with
 134 Creative Commons is not <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">business as usual.</span>”</span>
 135   </p><p>
 136     We had to rethink the way we conceived of this project. And it didn’t happen
 137 overnight. From the fall of 2015 through 2016, we documented our thoughts in
 138 blog posts on Medium and with regular updates to our Kickstarter backers. We
 139 shared drafts of case studies and analysis with our Kickstarter cocreators,
 140 who provided invaluable edits, feedback, and advice. Our thinking changed
 141 dramatically over the course of a year and a half.
 142   </p><p>
 143     Throughout the process, the two of us have often had very different ways of
 144 understanding and describing what we were learning. Learning from each other
 145 has been one of the great joys of this work, and, we hope, something that
 146 has made the final product much richer than it ever could have been if
 147 either of us undertook this project alone.  We have preserved our voices
 148 throughout, and you’ll be able to sense our different but complementary
 149 approaches as you read through our different sections.
 150   </p><p>
 151     While we recommend that you read the book from start to finish, each section
 152 reads more or less independently. The book is structured into two main
 153 parts.
 154   </p><p>
 155     Part one, the overview, begins with a big-picture framework written by
 156 Paul. He provides some historical context for the digital commons,
 157 describing the three ways society has managed resources and shared
 158 wealth—the commons, the market, and the state. He advocates for thinking
 159 beyond business and market terms and eloquently makes the case for sharing
 160 and enlarging the digital commons.
 161   </p><p>
 162     The overview continues with Sarah’s chapter, as she considers what it means
 163 to be successfully Made with Creative Commons. While making money is one
 164 piece of the pie, there is also a set of public-minded values and the kind
 165 of human connections that make sharing truly meaningful. This section
 166 outlines the ways the creators, organizations, and businesses we interviewed
 167 bring in revenue, how they further the public interest and live out their
 168 values, and how they foster connections with the people with whom they
 169 share.
 170   </p><p>
 171     And to end part one, we have a short section that explains the different
 172 Creative Commons licenses. We talk about the misconception that the more
 173 restrictive licenses—the ones that are closest to the all-rights-reserved
 174 model of traditional copyright—are the only ways to make money.
 175   </p><p>
 176     Part two of the book is made up of the twenty-four stories of the creators,
 177 businesses, and organizations we interviewed. While both of us participated
 178 in the interviews, we divided up the writing of these profiles.
 179   </p><p>
 180     Of course, we are pleased to make the book available using a Creative
 181 Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license. Please copy, distribute, translate,
 182 localize, and build upon this work.
 183   </p><p>
 184     Writing this book has transformed and inspired us. The way we now look at
 185 and think about what it means to be Made with Creative Commons has
 186 irrevocably changed. We hope this book inspires you and your enterprise to
 187 use Creative Commons and in so doing contribute to the transformation of our
 188 economy and world for the better.
 189   </p><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p></p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
 190     \textit{ 保罗和莎拉 }
 191     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div></div><div class="part"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="the-big-picture"></a>部分 I. The Big Picture</h1></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>目录</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-new-world-of-digital-commons">1. 数字共享的新世界</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#how-to-be-made-with-creative-commons">2. How to Be Made with Creative Commons</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-creative-commons-licenses">3. The Creative Commons Licenses</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="the-new-world-of-digital-commons"></a>第 1 章 数字共享的新世界</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>目录</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#the-commons-the-market-and-the-state">The Commons, the Market, and the State</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#the-four-aspects-of-a-resource">资源的四个方面</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#a-short-history-of-the-commons">A Short History of the Commons</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#the-digital-revolution">The Digital Revolution</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#the-birth-of-creative-commons">The Birth of Creative Commons</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#the-changing-market">The Changing Market</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#benefits-of-the-digital-commons">Benefits of the Digital Commons</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#our-case-studies">Our Case Studies</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p></p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
 192     \textit{ Paul Stacey}
 193     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
 194       Jonathan Rowe eloquently describes the commons as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">the air and oceans,
 195 the web of species, wilderness and flowing water—all are parts of the
 196 commons. So are language and knowledge, sidewalks and public squares, the
 197 stories of childhood and the processes of democracy. Some parts of the
 198 commons are gifts of nature, others the product of human endeavor. Some are
 199 new, such as the Internet; others are as ancient as soil and
 200 calligraphy.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm111" class="footnote" name="idm111"><sup class="footnote">[1]</sup></a>
 201     </p><p>
 202       In Made with Creative Commons, we focus on our current era of digital
 203 commons, a commons of human-produced works. This commons cuts across a broad
 204 range of areas including cultural heritage, education, research, technology,
 205 art, design, literature, entertainment, business, and data. Human-produced
 206 works in all these areas are increasingly digital. The Internet is a kind of
 207 global, digital commons. The individuals, organizations, and businesses we
 208 profile in our case studies use Creative Commons to share their resources
 209 online over the Internet.
 210     </p><p>
 211       The commons is not just about shared resources, however. It’s also about the
 212 social practices and values that manage them. A resource is a noun, but to
 213 common—to put the resource into the commons—is a verb.<a href="#ftn.idm115" class="footnote" name="idm115"><sup class="footnote">[2]</sup></a> The creators, organizations, and businesses we
 214 profile are all engaged with commoning. Their use of Creative Commons
 215 involves them in the social practice of commoning, managing resources in a
 216 collective manner with a community of users.<a href="#ftn.idm117" class="footnote" name="idm117"><sup class="footnote">[3]</sup></a> Commoning is guided by a set of values and norms that balance the
 217 costs and benefits of the enterprise with those of the community. Special
 218 regard is given to equitable access, use, and sustainability.
 219     </p><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="the-commons-the-market-and-the-state"></a>The Commons, the Market, and the State</h2></div></div></div><p>
 220         Historically, there have been three ways to manage resources and share
 221 wealth: the commons (managed collectively), the state (i.e., the
 222 government), and the market—with the last two being the dominant forms
 223 today.<a href="#ftn.idm122" class="footnote" name="idm122"><sup class="footnote">[4]</sup></a>
 224       </p><p>
 225         The organizations and businesses in our case studies are unique in the way
 226 they participate in the commons while still engaging with the market and/or
 227 state. The extent of engagement with market or state varies. Some operate
 228 primarily as a commons with minimal or no reliance on the market or
 229 state.<a href="#ftn.idm125" class="footnote" name="idm125"><sup class="footnote">[5]</sup></a> Others are very much a part of
 230 the market or state, depending on them for financial sustainability. All
 231 operate as hybrids, blending the norms of the commons with those of the
 232 market or state.
 233       </p><p>
 234         Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-1" title="图 1.1. Enterprise engagement with commons, state and market.">1.1</a> is a depiction of how
 235 an enterprise can have varying levels of engagement with commons, state, and
 236 market.
 237       </p><p>
 238         Some of our case studies are simply commons and market enterprises with
 239 little or no engagement with the state. A depiction of those case studies
 240 would show the state sphere as tiny or even absent. Other case studies are
 241 primarily market-based with only a small engagement with the commons. A
 242 depiction of those case studies would show the market sphere as large and
 243 the commons sphere as small. The extent to which an enterprise sees itself
 244 as being primarily of one type or another affects the balance of norms by
 245 which they operate.
 246       </p><p>
 247         All our case studies generate money as a means of livelihood and
 248 sustainability. Money is primarily of the market. Finding ways to generate
 249 revenue while holding true to the core values of the commons (usually
 250 expressed in mission statements) is challenging. To manage interaction and
 251 engagement between the commons and the market requires a deft touch, a
 252 strong sense of values, and the ability to blend the best of both.
 253       </p><p>
 254         The state has an important role to play in fostering the use and adoption of
 255 the commons. State programs and funding can deliberately contribute to and
 256 build the commons. Beyond money, laws and regulations regarding property,
 257 copyright, business, and finance can all be designed to foster the commons.
 258       </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-1"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.1. Enterprise engagement with commons, state and market.</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000008000000045C30360249076453E6.png" width="100%" alt="Enterprise engagement with commons, state and market."></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"><p>
 259         It’s helpful to understand how the commons, market, and state manage
 260 resources differently, and not just for those who consider themselves
 261 primarily as a commons. For businesses or governmental organizations who
 262 want to engage in and use the commons, knowing how the commons operates will
 263 help them understand how best to do so. Participating in and using the
 264 commons the same way you do the market or state is not a strategy for
 265 success.
 266       </p></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="the-four-aspects-of-a-resource"></a>资源的四个方面</h2></div></div></div><p>
 267         As part of her Nobel Prize–winning work, Elinor Ostrom developed a framework
 268 for analyzing how natural resources are managed in a commons.<a href="#ftn.idm143" class="footnote" name="idm143"><sup class="footnote">[6]</sup></a> Her framework considered things like the
 269 biophysical characteristics of common resources, the community’s actors and
 270 the interactions that take place between them, rules-in-use, and
 271 outcomes. That framework has been simplified and generalized to apply to the
 272 commons, the market, and the state for this chapter.
 273       </p><p>
 274         To compare and contrast the ways in which the commons, market, and state
 275 work, let’s consider four aspects of resource management: resource
 276 characteristics, the people involved and the process they use, the norms and
 277 rules they develop to govern use, and finally actual resource use along with
 278 outcomes of that use (see Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-2" title="图 1.2. Four aspects of resource management">1.2</a>).
 279       </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-2"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.2. Four aspects of resource management</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000007D0000007D0ACF13F8B71EAF0B9.png" width="100%" alt="Four aspects of resource management"></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="characteristics"></a>Characteristics</h3></div></div></div><p>
 280           Resources have particular characteristics or attributes that affect the way
 281 they can be used. Some resources are natural; others are human
 282 produced. And—significantly for today’s commons—resources can be physical or
 283 digital, which affects a resource’s inherent potential.
 284         </p><p>
 285           Physical resources exist in limited supply. If I have a physical resource
 286 and give it to you, I no longer have it.  When a resource is removed and
 287 used, the supply becomes scarce or depleted. Scarcity can result in
 288 competing rivalry for the resource. Made with Creative Commons enterprises
 289 are usually digitally based but some of our case studies also produce
 290 resources in physical form. The costs of producing and distributing a
 291 physical good usually require them to engage with the market.
 292         </p><p>
 293           Physical resources are depletable, exclusive, and rivalrous.  Digital
 294 resources, on the other hand, are nondepletable, nonexclusive, and
 295 nonrivalrous. If I share a digital resource with you, we both have the
 296 resource. Giving it to you does not mean I no longer have it. Digital
 297 resources can be infinitely stored, copied, and distributed without becoming
 298 depleted, and at close to zero cost. Abundance rather than scarcity is an
 299 inherent characteristic of digital resources.
 300         </p><p>
 301           The nondepletable, nonexclusive, and nonrivalrous nature of digital
 302 resources means the rules and norms for managing them can (and ought to) be
 303 different from how physical resources are managed. However, this is not
 304 always the case. Digital resources are frequently made artificially
 305 scarce. Placing digital resources in the commons makes them free and
 306 abundant.
 307         </p><p>
 308           Our case studies frequently manage hybrid resources, which start out as
 309 digital with the possibility of being made into a physical resource. The
 310 digital file of a book can be printed on paper and made into a physical
 311 book. A computer-rendered design for furniture can be physically
 312 manufactured in wood.  This conversion from digital to physical invariably
 313 has costs.  Often the digital resources are managed in a free and open way,
 314 but money is charged to convert a digital resource into a physical one.
 315         </p><p>
 316           Beyond this idea of physical versus digital, the commons, market, and state
 317 conceive of resources differently (see Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-3" title="图 1.3. How the market, commons and state concieve of resources.">1.3</a>). The market sees resources as private goods—commodities
 318 for sale—from which value is extracted. The state sees resources as public
 319 goods that provide value to state citizens. The commons sees resources as
 320 common goods, providing a common wealth extending beyond state boundaries,
 321 to be passed on in undiminished or enhanced form to future generations.
 322         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="people-and-processes"></a>People and processes</h3></div></div></div><p>
 323           In the commons, the market, and the state, different people and processes
 324 are used to manage resources. The processes used define both who has a say
 325 and how a resource is managed.
 326         </p><p>
 327           In the state, a government of elected officials is responsible for managing
 328 resources on behalf of the public. The citizens who produce and use those
 329 resources are not directly involved; instead, that responsibility is given
 330 over to the government.  State ministries and departments staffed with
 331 public servants set budgets, implement programs, and manage resources based
 332 on government priorities and procedures.
 333         </p><p>
 334           In the market, the people involved are producers, buyers, sellers, and
 335 consumers. Businesses act as intermediaries between those who produce
 336 resources and those who consume or use them. Market processes seek to
 337 extract as much monetary value from resources as possible. In the market,
 338 resources are managed as commodities, frequently mass-produced, and sold to
 339 consumers on the basis of a cash transaction.
 340         </p><p>
 341           In contrast to the state and market, resources in a commons are managed more
 342 directly by the people involved.<a href="#ftn.idm170" class="footnote" name="idm170"><sup class="footnote">[7]</sup></a>
 343 Creators of human produced resources can put them in the commons by personal
 344 choice. No permission from state or market is required. Anyone can
 345 participate in the commons and determine for themselves the extent to which
 346 they want to be involved—as a contributor, user, or manager. The people
 347 involved include not only those who create and use resources but those
 348 affected by outcome of use. Who you are affects your say, actions you can
 349 take, and extent of decision making. In the commons, the community as a
 350 whole manages the resources.  Resources put into the commons using Creative
 351 Commons require users to give the original creator credit. Knowing the
 352 person behind a resource makes the commons less anonymous and more personal.
 353         </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-3"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.3. How the market, commons and state concieve of resources.</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000009C40000065D9EC4F530BD4DFBE0.png" width="100%" alt="How the market, commons and state concieve of resources."></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="norms-and-rules"></a>Norms and rules</h3></div></div></div><p>
 354           The social interactions between people, and the processes used by the state,
 355 market, and commons, evolve social norms and rules. These norms and rules
 356 define permissions, allocate entitlements, and resolve disputes.
 357         </p><p>
 358           State authority is governed by national constitutions. Norms related to
 359 priorities and decision making are defined by elected officials and
 360 parliamentary procedures. State rules are expressed through policies,
 361 regulations, and laws. The state influences the norms and rules of the
 362 market and commons through the rules it passes.
 363         </p><p>
 364           Market norms are influenced by economics and competition for scarce
 365 resources. Market rules follow property, business, and financial laws
 366 defined by the state.
 367         </p><p>
 368           As with the market, a commons can be influenced by state policies,
 369 regulations, and laws. But the norms and rules of a commons are largely
 370 defined by the community. They weigh individual costs and benefits against
 371 the costs and benefits to the whole community. Consideration is given not
 372 just to economic efficiency but also to equity and
 373 sustainability.<a href="#ftn.idm185" class="footnote" name="idm185"><sup class="footnote">[8]</sup></a>
 374         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="goals"></a>Goals</h3></div></div></div><p>
 375           The combination of the aspects we’ve discussed so far—the resource’s
 376 inherent characteristics, people and processes, and norms and rules—shape
 377 how resources are used. Use is also influenced by the different goals the
 378 state, market, and commons have.
 379         </p><p>
 380           In the market, the focus is on maximizing the utility of a resource. What we
 381 pay for the goods we consume is seen as an objective measure of the utility
 382 they provide. The goal then becomes maximizing total monetary value in the
 383 economy.<a href="#ftn.idm191" class="footnote" name="idm191"><sup class="footnote">[9]</sup></a> Units consumed translates to
 384 sales, revenue, profit, and growth, and these are all ways to measure goals
 385 of the market.
 386         </p><p>
 387           The state aims to use and manage resources in a way that balances the
 388 economy with the social and cultural needs of its citizens. Health care,
 389 education, jobs, the environment, transportation, security, heritage, and
 390 justice are all facets of a healthy society, and the state applies its
 391 resources toward these aims. State goals are reflected in quality of life
 392 measures.
 393         </p><p>
 394           In the commons, the goal is maximizing access, equity, distribution,
 395 participation, innovation, and sustainability.  You can measure success by
 396 looking at how many people access and use a resource; how users are
 397 distributed across gender, income, and location; if a community to extend
 398 and enhance the resources is being formed; and if the resources are being
 399 used in innovative ways for personal and social good.
 400         </p><p>
 401           As hybrid combinations of the commons with the market or state, the success
 402 and sustainability of all our case study enterprises depends on their
 403 ability to strategically utilize and balance these different aspects of
 404 managing resources.
 405         </p></div></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="a-short-history-of-the-commons"></a>A Short History of the Commons</h2></div></div></div><p>
 406         Using the commons to manage resources is part of a long historical
 407 continuum. However, in contemporary society, the market and the state
 408 dominate the discourse on how resources are best managed. Rarely is the
 409 commons even considered as an option. The commons has largely disappeared
 410 from consciousness and consideration. There are no news reports or speeches
 411 about the commons.
 412       </p><p>
 413         But the more than 1.1 billion resources licensed with Creative Commons
 414 around the world are indications of a grassroots move toward the
 415 commons. The commons is making a resurgence. To understand the resilience of
 416 the commons and its current renewal, it’s helpful to know something of its
 417 history.
 418       </p><p>
 419         For centuries, indigenous people and preindustrialized societies managed
 420 resources, including water, food, firewood, irrigation, fish, wild game, and
 421 many other things collectively as a commons.<a href="#ftn.idm202" class="footnote" name="idm202"><sup class="footnote">[10]</sup></a> There was no market, no global economy. The state in the form of
 422 rulers influenced the commons but by no means controlled it. Direct social
 423 participation in a commons was the primary way in which resources were
 424 managed and needs met. (Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-4" title="图 1.4. In preindustrialized society.">1.4</a>
 425 illustrates the commons in relation to the state and the market.)
 426       </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-4"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.4. In preindustrialized society.</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000009C4000005153EACBD62F00F6BA9.png" width="100%" alt="In preindustrialized society."></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"><p>
 427         This is followed by a long history of the state (a monarchy or ruler) taking
 428 over the commons for their own purposes. This is called enclosure of the
 429 commons.<a href="#ftn.idm213" class="footnote" name="idm213"><sup class="footnote">[11]</sup></a> In olden days,
 430 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">commoners</span>”</span> were evicted from the land, fences and hedges
 431 erected, laws passed, and security set up to forbid access.<a href="#ftn.idm216" class="footnote" name="idm216"><sup class="footnote">[12]</sup></a> Gradually, resources became the property of the
 432 state and the state became the primary means by which resources were
 433 managed. (See Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-5" title="图 1.5. The commons is gradually superseded by the state.">1.5</a>).
 434       </p><p>
 435         Holdings of land, water, and game were distributed to ruling family and
 436 political appointees. Commoners displaced from the land migrated to
 437 cities. With the emergence of the industrial revolution, land and resources
 438 became commodities sold to businesses to support production. Monarchies
 439 evolved into elected parliaments. Commoners became labourers earning money
 440 operating the machinery of industry. Financial, business, and property laws
 441 were revised by governments to support markets, growth, and
 442 productivity. Over time ready access to market produced goods resulted in a
 443 rising standard of living, improved health, and education. Fig. <a class="xref" href="#fig-6" title="图 1.6. How the market, the state and the commons look today.">1.6</a> shows how today the market is the
 444 primary means by which resources are managed.
 445       </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-5"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.5. The commons is gradually superseded by the state.</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000009C4000005150F069409C1CC12F0.png" width="100%" alt="The commons is gradually superseded by the state."></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"><p>
 446         However, the world today is going through turbulent times. The benefits of
 447 the market have been offset by unequal distribution and overexploitation.
 448       </p><p>
 449         Overexploitation was the topic of Garrett Hardin’s influential essay
 450 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Tragedy of the Commons,</span>”</span> published in Science in
 451 1968. Hardin argues that everyone in a commons seeks to maximize personal
 452 gain and will continue to do so even when the limits of the commons are
 453 reached. The commons is then tragically depleted to the point where it can
 454 no longer support anyone. Hardin’s essay became widely accepted as an
 455 economic truism and a justification for private property and free markets.
 456       </p><p>
 457         However, there is one serious flaw with Hardin’s <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Tragedy of the
 458 Commons</span>”</span>—it’s fiction. Hardin did not actually study how real commons
 459 work. Elinor Ostrom won the 2009 Nobel Prize in economics for her work
 460 studying different commons all around the world. Ostrom’s work shows that
 461 natural resource commons can be successfully managed by local communities
 462 without any regulation by central authorities or without privatization.
 463 Government and privatization are not the only two choices. There is a third
 464 way: management by the people, where those that are directly impacted are
 465 directly involved. With natural resources, there is a regional locality. The
 466 people in the region are the most familiar with the natural resource, have
 467 the most direct relationship and history with it, and are therefore best
 468 situated to manage it. Ostrom’s approach to the governance of natural
 469 resources broke with convention; she recognized the importance of the
 470 commons as an alternative to the market or state for solving problems of
 471 collective action.<a href="#ftn.idm233" class="footnote" name="idm233"><sup class="footnote">[13]</sup></a>
 472       </p><p>
 473         Hardin failed to consider the actual social dynamic of the commons. His
 474 model assumed that people in the commons act autonomously, out of pure
 475 self-interest, without interaction or consideration of others. But as Ostrom
 476 found, in reality, managing common resources together forms a community and
 477 encourages discourse. This naturally generates norms and rules that help
 478 people work collectively and ensure a sustainable commons. Paradoxically,
 479 while Hardin’s essay is called The Tragedy of the Commons it might more
 480 accurately be titled The Tragedy of the Market.
 481       </p><p>
 482         Hardin’s story is based on the premise of depletable resources.  Economists
 483 have focused almost exclusively on scarcity-based markets. Very little is
 484 known about how abundance works.<a href="#ftn.idm238" class="footnote" name="idm238"><sup class="footnote">[14]</sup></a> The
 485 emergence of information technology and the Internet has led to an explosion
 486 in digital resources and new means of sharing and distribution. Digital
 487 resources can never be depleted. An absence of a theory or model for how
 488 abundance works, however, has led the market to make digital resources
 489 artificially scarce and makes it possible for the usual market norms and
 490 rules to be applied.
 491       </p><p>
 492         When it comes to use of state funds to create digital goods, however, there
 493 is really no justification for artificial scarcity. The norm for state
 494 funded digital works should be that they are freely and openly available to
 495 the public that paid for them.
 496       </p><div class="figure"><a name="fig-6"></a><p class="title"><b>图 1.6. How the market, the state and the commons look today.</b></p><div class="figure-contents"><div class="mediaobject"><table border="0" summary="manufactured viewport for HTML img" style="cellpadding: 0; cellspacing: 0;" width="80.0%"><tr><td><img src="Pictures/10000201000009C400000515F1CAA15B223F6BAF.png" width="100%" alt="How the market, the state and the commons look today."></td></tr></table></div></div></div><br class="figure-break"></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="the-digital-revolution"></a>The Digital Revolution</h2></div></div></div><p>
 497         In the early days of computing, programmers and developers learned from each
 498 other by sharing software. In the 1980s, the free-software movement codified
 499 this practice of sharing into a set of principles and freedoms:
 500       </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
 501             The freedom to run a software program as you wish, for any purpose.
 502           </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
 503             The freedom to study how a software program works (because access to the
 504 source code has been freely given), and change it so it does your computing
 505 as you wish.
 506           </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
 507             The freedom to redistribute copies.
 508           </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
 509             The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to
 510 others.<a href="#ftn.idm261" class="footnote" name="idm261"><sup class="footnote">[15]</sup></a>
 511           </p></li></ul></div><p>
 512         These principles and freedoms constitute a set of norms and rules that
 513 typify a digital commons.
 514       </p><p>
 515         In the late 1990s, to make the sharing of source code and collaboration more
 516 appealing to companies, the open-source-software initiative converted these
 517 principles into licenses and standards for managing access to and
 518 distribution of software. The benefits of open source—such as reliability,
 519 scalability, and quality verified by independent peer review—became widely
 520 recognized and accepted. Customers liked the way open source gave them
 521 control without being locked into a closed, proprietary technology. Free and
 522 open-source software also generated a network effect where the value of a
 523 product or service increases with the number of people using it.<a href="#ftn.idm267" class="footnote" name="idm267"><sup class="footnote">[16]</sup></a> The dramatic growth of the Internet itself owes
 524 much to the fact that nobody has a proprietary lock on core Internet
 525 protocols.
 526       </p><p>
 527         While open-source software functions as a commons, many businesses and
 528 markets did build up around it. Business models based on the licenses and
 529 standards of open-source software evolved alongside organizations that
 530 managed software code on principles of abundance rather than scarcity. Eric
 531 Raymond’s essay <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Magic Cauldron</span>”</span> does a great job of
 532 analyzing the economics and business models associated with open-source
 533 software.<a href="#ftn.idm272" class="footnote" name="idm272"><sup class="footnote">[17]</sup></a> These models can provide
 534 examples of sustainable approaches for those Made with Creative Commons.
 535       </p><p>
 536         It isn’t just about an abundant availability of digital assets but also
 537 about abundance of participation. The growth of personal computing,
 538 information technology, and the Internet made it possible for mass
 539 participation in producing creative works and distributing them. Photos,
 540 books, music, and many other forms of digital content could now be readily
 541 created and distributed by almost anyone. Despite this potential for
 542 abundance, by default these digital works are governed by copyright
 543 laws. Under copyright, a digital work is the property of the creator, and by
 544 law others are excluded from accessing and using it without the creator’s
 545 permission.
 546       </p><p>
 547         But people like to share. One of the ways we define ourselves is by sharing
 548 valuable and entertaining content. Doing so grows and nourishes
 549 relationships, seeks to change opinions, encourages action, and informs
 550 others about who we are and what we care about. Sharing lets us feel more
 551 involved with the world.<a href="#ftn.idm278" class="footnote" name="idm278"><sup class="footnote">[18]</sup></a>
 552       </p></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="the-birth-of-creative-commons"></a>The Birth of Creative Commons</h2></div></div></div><p>
 553         In 2001, Creative Commons was created as a nonprofit to support all those
 554 who wanted to share digital content. A suite of Creative Commons licenses
 555 was modeled on those of open-source software but for use with digital
 556 content rather than software code. The licenses give everyone from
 557 individual creators to large companies and institutions a simple,
 558 standardized way to grant copyright permissions to their creative work.
 559       </p><p>
 560         Creative Commons licenses have a three-layer design. The norms and rules of
 561 each license are first expressed in full legal language as used by
 562 lawyers. This layer is called the legal code. But since most creators and
 563 users are not lawyers, the licenses also have a commons deed, expressing the
 564 permissions in plain language, which regular people can read and quickly
 565 understand. It acts as a user-friendly interface to the legal-code layer
 566 beneath. The third layer is the machine-readable one, making it easy for the
 567 Web to know a work is Creative Commons–licensed by expressing permissions in
 568 a way that software systems, search engines, and other kinds of technology
 569 can understand.<a href="#ftn.idm285" class="footnote" name="idm285"><sup class="footnote">[19]</sup></a> Taken together, these
 570 three layers ensure creators, users, and even the Web itself understand the
 571 norms and rules associated with digital content in a commons.
 572       </p><p>
 573         In 2015, there were over one billion Creative Commons licensed works in a
 574 global commons. These works were viewed online 136 billion times. People are
 575 using Creative Commons licenses all around the world, in thirty-four
 576 languages. These resources include photos, artwork, research articles in
 577 journals, educational resources, music and other audio tracks, and videos.
 578       </p><p>
 579         Individual artists, photographers, musicians, and filmmakers use Creative
 580 Commons, but so do museums, governments, creative industries, manufacturers,
 581 and publishers. Millions of websites use CC licenses, including major
 582 platforms like Wikipedia and Flickr and smaller ones like blogs.<a href="#ftn.idm291" class="footnote" name="idm291"><sup class="footnote">[20]</sup></a> Users of Creative Commons are diverse and cut
 583 across many different sectors. (Our case studies were chosen to reflect that
 584 diversity.)
 585       </p><p>
 586         Some see Creative Commons as a way to share a gift with others, a way of
 587 getting known, or a way to provide social benefit.  Others are simply
 588 committed to the norms associated with a commons. And for some,
 589 participation has been spurred by the free-culture movement, a social
 590 movement that promotes the freedom to distribute and modify creative
 591 works. The free-culture movement sees a commons as providing significant
 592 benefits compared to restrictive copyright laws. This ethos of free exchange
 593 in a commons aligns the free-culture movement with the free and open-source
 594 software movement.
 595       </p><p>
 596         Over time, Creative Commons has spawned a range of open movements, including
 597 open educational resources, open access, open science, and open data. The
 598 goal in every case has been to democratize participation and share digital
 599 resources at no cost, with legal permissions for anyone to freely access,
 600 use, and modify.
 601       </p><p>
 602         The state is increasingly involved in supporting open movements.  The Open
 603 Government Partnership was launched in 2011 to provide an international
 604 platform for governments to become more open, accountable, and responsive to
 605 citizens. Since then, it has grown from eight participating countries to
 606 seventy.<a href="#ftn.idm297" class="footnote" name="idm297"><sup class="footnote">[21]</sup></a> In all these countries,
 607 government and civil society are working together to develop and implement
 608 ambitious open-government reforms. Governments are increasingly adopting
 609 Creative Commons to ensure works funded with taxpayer dollars are open and
 610 free to the public that paid for them.
 611       </p></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="the-changing-market"></a>The Changing Market</h2></div></div></div><p>
 612         Today’s market is largely driven by global capitalism. Law and financial
 613 systems are structured to support extraction, privatization, and corporate
 614 growth. A perception that the market is more efficient than the state has
 615 led to continual privatization of many public natural resources, utilities,
 616 services, and infrastructures.<a href="#ftn.idm304" class="footnote" name="idm304"><sup class="footnote">[22]</sup></a> While
 617 this system has been highly efficient at generating consumerism and the
 618 growth of gross domestic product, the impact on human well-being has been
 619 mixed. Offsetting rising living standards and improvements to health and
 620 education are ever-increasing wealth inequality, social inequality, poverty,
 621 deterioration of our natural environment, and breakdowns of
 622 democracy.<a href="#ftn.idm306" class="footnote" name="idm306"><sup class="footnote">[23]</sup></a>
 623       </p><p>
 624         In light of these challenges there is a growing recognition that GDP growth
 625 should not be an end in itself, that development needs to be socially and
 626 economically inclusive, that environmental sustainability is a requirement
 627 not an option, and that we need to better balance the market, state and
 628 community.<a href="#ftn.idm309" class="footnote" name="idm309"><sup class="footnote">[24]</sup></a>
 629       </p><p>
 630         These realizations have led to a resurgence of interest in the commons as a
 631 means of enabling that balance. City governments like Bologna, Italy, are
 632 collaborating with their citizens to put in place regulations for the care
 633 and regeneration of urban commons.<a href="#ftn.idm314" class="footnote" name="idm314"><sup class="footnote">[25]</sup></a>
 634 Seoul and Amsterdam call themselves <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">sharing cities,</span>”</span> looking
 635 to make sustainable and more efficient use of scarce resources. They see
 636 sharing as a way to improve the use of public spaces, mobility, social
 637 cohesion, and safety.<a href="#ftn.idm318" class="footnote" name="idm318"><sup class="footnote">[26]</sup></a>
 638       </p><p>
 639         The market itself has taken an interest in the sharing economy, with
 640 businesses like Airbnb providing a peer-to-peer marketplace for short-term
 641 lodging and Uber providing a platform for ride sharing. However, Airbnb and
 642 Uber are still largely operating under the usual norms and rules of the
 643 market, making them less like a commons and more like a traditional business
 644 seeking financial gain. Much of the sharing economy is not about the commons
 645 or building an alternative to a corporate-driven market economy; it’s about
 646 extending the deregulated free market into new areas of our
 647 lives.<a href="#ftn.idm323" class="footnote" name="idm323"><sup class="footnote">[27]</sup></a> While none of the people we
 648 interviewed for our case studies would describe themselves as part of the
 649 sharing economy, there are in fact some significant parallels. Both the
 650 sharing economy and the commons make better use of asset capacity. The
 651 sharing economy sees personal residents and cars as having latent spare
 652 capacity with rental value. The equitable access of the commons broadens and
 653 diversifies the number of people who can use and derive value from an asset.
 654       </p><p>
 655         One way Made with Creative Commons case studies differ from those of the
 656 sharing economy is their focus on digital resources. Digital resources
 657 function under different economic rules than physical ones. In a world where
 658 prices always seem to go up, information technology is an
 659 anomaly. Computer-processing power, storage, and bandwidth are all rapidly
 660 increasing, but rather than costs going up, costs are coming down. Digital
 661 technologies are getting faster, better, and cheaper. The cost of anything
 662 built on these technologies will always go down until it is close to
 663 zero.<a href="#ftn.idm326" class="footnote" name="idm326"><sup class="footnote">[28]</sup></a>
 664       </p><p>
 665         Those that are Made with Creative Commons are looking to leverage the unique
 666 inherent characteristics of digital resources, including lowering costs. The
 667 use of digital-rights-management technologies in the form of locks,
 668 passwords, and controls to prevent digital goods from being accessed,
 669 changed, replicated, and distributed is minimal or nonexistent. Instead,
 670 Creative Commons licenses are used to put digital content out in the
 671 commons, taking advantage of the unique economics associated with being
 672 digital. The aim is to see digital resources used as widely and by as many
 673 people as possible. Maximizing access and participation is a common goal.
 674 They aim for abundance over scarcity.
 675       </p><p>
 676         The incremental cost of storing, copying, and distributing digital goods is
 677 next to zero, making abundance possible. But imagining a market based on
 678 abundance rather than scarcity is so alien to the way we conceive of
 679 economic theory and practice that we struggle to do so.<a href="#ftn.idm330" class="footnote" name="idm330"><sup class="footnote">[29]</sup></a> Those that are Made with Creative Commons are each
 680 pioneering in this new landscape, devising their own economic models and
 681 practice.
 682       </p><p>
 683         Some are looking to minimize their interactions with the market and operate
 684 as autonomously as possible. Others are operating largely as a business
 685 within the existing rules and norms of the market. And still others are
 686 looking to change the norms and rules by which the market operates.
 687       </p><p>
 688         For an ordinary corporation, making social benefit a part of its operations
 689 is difficult, as it’s legally required to make decisions that financially
 690 benefit stockholders. But new forms of business are emerging. There are
 691 benefit corporations and social enterprises, which broaden their business
 692 goals from making a profit to making a positive impact on society, workers,
 693 the community, and the environment.<a href="#ftn.idm334" class="footnote" name="idm334"><sup class="footnote">[30]</sup></a>
 694 Community-owned businesses, worker-owned businesses, cooperatives, guilds,
 695 and other organizational forms offer alternatives to the traditional
 696 corporation. Collectively, these alternative market entities are changing
 697 the rules and norms of the market.<a href="#ftn.idm336" class="footnote" name="idm336"><sup class="footnote">[31]</sup></a>
 698       </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">A book on open business models</span>”</span> is how we described it in this
 699 book’s Kickstarter campaign. We used a handbook called Business Model
 700 Generation as our reference for defining just what a business model
 701 is. Developed over nine years using an <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open process</span>”</span> involving
 702 470 coauthors from forty-five countries, it is useful as a framework for
 703 talking about business models.<a href="#ftn.idm341" class="footnote" name="idm341"><sup class="footnote">[32]</sup></a>
 704       </p><p>
 705         It contains a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">business model canvas,</span>”</span> which conceives of a
 706 business model as having nine building blocks.<a href="#ftn.idm346" class="footnote" name="idm346"><sup class="footnote">[33]</sup></a> This blank canvas can serve as a tool for anyone to design their
 707 own business model. We remixed this business model canvas into an open
 708 business model canvas, adding three more building blocks relevant to hybrid
 709 market, commons enterprises: social good, Creative Commons license, and
 710 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">type of open environment that the business fits
 711 in.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm350" class="footnote" name="idm350"><sup class="footnote">[34]</sup></a> This enhanced canvas proved
 712 useful when we analyzed businesses and helped start-ups plan their economic
 713 model.
 714       </p><p>
 715         In our case study interviews, many expressed discomfort over describing
 716 themselves as an open business model—the term business model suggested
 717 primarily being situated in the market.  Where you sit on the
 718 commons-to-market spectrum affects the extent to which you see yourself as a
 719 business in the market.  The more central to the mission shared resources
 720 and commons values are, the less comfort there is in describing yourself, or
 721 depicting what you do, as a business. Not all who have endeavors Made with
 722 Creative Commons use business speak; for some the process has been
 723 experimental, emergent, and organic rather than carefully planned using a
 724 predefined model.
 725       </p><p>
 726         The creators, businesses, and organizations we profile all engage with the
 727 market to generate revenue in some way. The ways in which this is done vary
 728 widely. Donations, pay what you can, memberships, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">digital for free
 729 but physical for a fee,</span>”</span> crowdfunding, matchmaking, value-add
 730 services, patrons . . . the list goes on and on. (Initial description of how
 731 to earn revenue available through reference note. For latest thinking see
 732 How to Bring In Money in the next section.)<a href="#ftn.idm358" class="footnote" name="idm358"><sup class="footnote">[35]</sup></a> There is no single magic bullet, and each endeavor has devised ways
 733 that work for them. Most make use of more than one way. Diversifying revenue
 734 streams lowers risk and provides multiple paths to sustainability.
 735       </p></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="benefits-of-the-digital-commons"></a>Benefits of the Digital Commons</h2></div></div></div><p>
 736         While it may be clear why commons-based organizations want to interact and
 737 engage with the market (they need money to survive), it may be less obvious
 738 why the market would engage with the commons. The digital commons offers
 739 many benefits.
 740       </p><p>
 741         The commons speeds dissemination. The free flow of resources in the commons
 742 offers tremendous economies of scale. Distribution is decentralized, with
 743 all those in the commons empowered to share the resources they have access
 744 to. Those that are Made with Creative Commons have a reduced need for sales
 745 or marketing. Decentralized distribution amplifies supply and know-how.
 746       </p><p>
 747         The commons ensures access to all. The market has traditionally operated by
 748 putting resources behind a paywall requiring payment first before
 749 access. The commons puts resources in the open, providing access up front
 750 without payment. Those that are Made with Creative Commons make little or no
 751 use of digital rights management (DRM) to manage resources. Not using DRM
 752 frees them of the costs of acquiring DRM technology and staff resources to
 753 engage in the punitive practices associated with restricting access. The way
 754 the commons provides access to everyone levels the playing field and
 755 promotes inclusiveness, equity, and fairness.
 756       </p><p>
 757         The commons maximizes participation. Resources in the commons can be used
 758 and contributed to by everyone. Using the resources of others, contributing
 759 your own, and mixing yours with others to create new works are all dynamic
 760 forms of participation made possible by the commons. Being Made with
 761 Creative Commons means you’re engaging as many users with your resources as
 762 possible.  Users are also authoring, editing, remixing, curating,
 763 localizing, translating, and distributing. The commons makes it possible for
 764 people to directly participate in culture, knowledge building, and even
 765 democracy, and many other socially beneficial practices.
 766       </p><p>
 767         The commons spurs innovation. Resources in the hands of more people who can
 768 use them leads to new ideas. The way commons resources can be modified,
 769 customized, and improved results in derivative works never imagined by the
 770 original creator. Some endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons
 771 deliberately encourage users to take the resources being shared and innovate
 772 them. Doing so moves research and development (R&amp;D) from being solely
 773 inside the organization to being in the community.<a href="#ftn.idm369" class="footnote" name="idm369"><sup class="footnote">[36]</sup></a> Community-based innovation will keep an
 774 organization or business on its toes. It must continue to contribute new
 775 ideas, absorb and build on top of the innovations of others, and steward the
 776 resources and the relationship with the community.
 777       </p><p>
 778         The commons boosts reach and impact. The digital commons is
 779 global. Resources may be created for a local or regional need, but they go
 780 far and wide generating a global impact. In the digital world, there are no
 781 borders between countries. When you are Made with Creative Commons, you are
 782 often local and global at the same time: Digital designs being globally
 783 distributed but made and manufactured locally. Digital books or music being
 784 globally distributed but readings and concerts performed locally. The
 785 digital commons magnifies impact by connecting creators to those who use and
 786 build on their work both locally and globally.
 787       </p><p>
 788         The commons is generative. Instead of extracting value, the commons adds
 789 value. Digitized resources persist without becoming depleted, and through
 790 use are improved, personalized, and localized. Each use adds value. The
 791 market focuses on generating value for the business and the customer. The
 792 commons generates value for a broader range of beneficiaries including the
 793 business, the customer, the creator, the public, and the commons itself. The
 794 generative nature of the commons means that it is more cost-effective and
 795 produces a greater return on investment.  Value is not just measured in
 796 financial terms. Each new resource added to the commons provides value to
 797 the public and contributes to the overall value of the commons.
 798       </p><p>
 799         The commons brings people together for a common cause. The commons vests
 800 people directly with the responsibility to manage the resources for the
 801 common good. The costs and benefits for the individual are balanced with the
 802 costs and benefits for the community and for future generations. Resources
 803 are not anonymous or mass produced. Their provenance is known and
 804 acknowledged through attribution and other means. Those that are Made with
 805 Creative Commons generate awareness and reputation based on their
 806 contributions to the commons. The reach, impact, and sustainability of those
 807 contributions rest largely on their ability to forge relationships and
 808 connections with those who use and improve them. By functioning on the basis
 809 of social engagement, not monetary exchange, the commons unifies people.
 810       </p><p>
 811         The benefits of the commons are many. When these benefits align with the
 812 goals of individuals, communities, businesses in the market, or state
 813 enterprises, choosing to manage resources as a commons ought to be the
 814 option of choice.
 815       </p></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="our-case-studies"></a>Our Case Studies</h2></div></div></div><p>
 816         The creators, organizations, and businesses in our case studies operate as
 817 nonprofits, for-profits, and social enterprises.  Regardless of legal
 818 status, they all have a social mission.  Their primary reason for being is
 819 to make the world a better place, not to profit. Money is a means to a
 820 social end, not the end itself. They factor public interest into decisions,
 821 behavior, and practices. Transparency and trust are really important. Impact
 822 and success are measured against social aims expressed in mission
 823 statements, and are not just about the financial bottom line.
 824       </p><p>
 825         The case studies are based on the narratives told to us by founders and key
 826 staff. Instead of solely using financials as the measure of success and
 827 sustainability, they emphasized their mission, practices, and means by which
 828 they measure success.  Metrics of success are a blend of how social goals
 829 are being met and how sustainable the enterprise is.
 830       </p><p>
 831         Our case studies are diverse, ranging from publishing to education and
 832 manufacturing. All of the organizations, businesses, and creators in the
 833 case studies produce digital resources. Those resources exist in many forms
 834 including books, designs, songs, research, data, cultural works, education
 835 materials, graphic icons, and video. Some are digital representations of
 836 physical resources. Others are born digital but can be made into physical
 837 resources.
 838       </p><p>
 839         They are creating new resources, or using the resources of others, or mixing
 840 existing resources together to make something new. They, and their audience,
 841 all play a direct, participatory role in managing those resources, including
 842 their preservation, curation, distribution, and enhancement. Access and
 843 participation is open to all regardless of monetary means.
 844       </p><p>
 845         And as users of Creative Commons licenses, they are automatically part of a
 846 global community. The new digital commons is global. Those we profiled come
 847 from nearly every continent in the world. To build and interact within this
 848 global community is conducive to success.
 849       </p><p>
 850         Creative Commons licenses may express legal rules around the use of
 851 resources in a commons, but success in the commons requires more than
 852 following the letter of the law and acquiring financial means. Over and over
 853 we heard in our interviews how success and sustainability are tied to a set
 854 of beliefs, values, and principles that underlie their actions: Give more
 855 than you take. Be open and inclusive. Add value. Make visible what you are
 856 using from the commons, what you are adding, and what you are
 857 monetizing. Maximize abundance. Give attribution. Express gratitude. Develop
 858 trust; don’t exploit. Build relationship and community. Be
 859 transparent. Defend the commons.
 860       </p><p>
 861         The new digital commons is here to stay. Made With Creative Commons case
 862 studies show how it’s possible to be part of this commons while still
 863 functioning within market and state systems.  The commons generates benefits
 864 neither the market nor state can achieve on their own. Rather than the
 865 market or state dominating as primary means of resource management, a more
 866 balanced alternative is possible.
 867       </p><p>
 868         Enterprise use of Creative Commons has only just begun. The case studies in
 869 this book are merely starting points. Each is changing and evolving over
 870 time. Many more are joining and inventing new models. This overview aims to
 871 provide a framework and language for thinking and talking about the new
 872 digital commons. The remaining sections go deeper providing further guidance
 873 and insights on how it works.
 874       </p></div><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm111" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm111" class="para"><sup class="para">[1] </sup></a>
 875           Jonathan Rowe, Our Common Wealth (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2013), 14.
 876         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm115" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm115" class="para"><sup class="para">[2] </sup></a>
 877           David Bollier, Think Like a Commoner: A Short Introduction to the Life of
 878 the Commons (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society, 2014), 176.
 879         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm117" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm117" class="para"><sup class="para">[3] </sup></a>
 880           Ibid., 15.
 881         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm122" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm122" class="para"><sup class="para">[4] </sup></a>
 882             Ibid., 145.
 883           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm125" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm125" class="para"><sup class="para">[5] </sup></a>
 884             Ibid., 175.
 885           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm143" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm143" class="para"><sup class="para">[6] </sup></a>
 886             Daniel H. Cole, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Learning from Lin: Lessons and Cautions from the
 887 Natural Commons for the Knowledge Commons,</span>”</span> in Governing Knowledge
 888 Commons, eds. Brett M. Frischmann, Michael J. Madison, and Katherine J.
 889 Strandburg (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 53.
 890           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm170" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm170" class="para"><sup class="para">[7] </sup></a>
 891               Max Haiven, Crises of Imagination, Crises of Power: Capitalism, Creativity
 892 and the Commons (New York: Zed Books, 2014), 93.
 893             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm185" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm185" class="para"><sup class="para">[8] </sup></a>
 894               Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 175.
 895             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm191" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm191" class="para"><sup class="para">[9] </sup></a>
 896               Joshua Farley and Ida Kubiszewski, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Economics of Information in a
 897 Post-Carbon Economy,</span>”</span> in Free Knowledge: Confronting the
 898 Commodification of Human Discovery, eds. Patricia W. Elliott and Daryl
 899 H. Hepting (Regina, SK: University of Regina Press, 2015), 201–4.
 900             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm202" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm202" class="para"><sup class="para">[10] </sup></a>
 901             Rowe, Our Common Wealth, 19; and Heather Menzies, Reclaiming the Commons for
 902 the Common Good: A Memoir and Manifesto (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society,
 903 2014), 42–43.
 904           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm213" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm213" class="para"><sup class="para">[11] </sup></a>
 905             Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 55–78.
 906           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm216" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm216" class="para"><sup class="para">[12] </sup></a>
 907             Fritjof Capra and Ugo Mattei, The Ecology of Law: Toward a Legal System in
 908 Tune with Nature and Community (Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2015), 46–57;
 909 and Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 88.
 910           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm233" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm233" class="para"><sup class="para">[13] </sup></a>
 911             Brett M. Frischmann, Michael J. Madison, and Katherine J.  Strandburg,
 912 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Governing Knowledge Commons,</span>”</span> in Frischmann, Madison, and
 913 Strandburg Governing Knowledge Commons, 12.
 914           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm238" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm238" class="para"><sup class="para">[14] </sup></a>
 915             Farley and Kubiszewski, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Economics of Information,</span>”</span> in Elliott
 916 and Hepting, Free Knowledge, 203.
 917           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm261" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm261" class="para"><sup class="para">[15] </sup></a><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">What Is Free Software?</span>”</span> GNU Operating System, the Free
 918 Software Foundation’s Licensing and Compliance Lab, accessed December 30,
 919 2016, <a class="ulink" href="http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw" target="_top">http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw</a>.
 920               </p></div><div id="ftn.idm267" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm267" class="para"><sup class="para">[16] </sup></a>
 921             Wikipedia, s.v. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Open-source software,</span>”</span> last modified November
 922 22, 2016.
 923           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm272" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm272" class="para"><sup class="para">[17] </sup></a>
 924             Eric S. Raymond, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Magic Cauldron,</span>”</span> in The Cathedral and the
 925 Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary,
 926 rev. ed. (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media, 2001), <a class="ulink" href="http://www.catb.org/esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/" target="_top">http://www.catb.org/esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/</a>.
 927           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm278" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm278" class="para"><sup class="para">[18] </sup></a>
 928             New York Times Customer Insight Group, The Psychology of Sharing: Why Do
 929 People Share Online? (New York: New York Times Customer Insight Group,
 930 2011), <a class="ulink" href="http://www.iab.net/media/file/POSWhitePaper.pdf" target="_top">http://www.iab.net/media/file/POSWhitePaper.pdf</a>.
 931           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm285" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm285" class="para"><sup class="para">[19] </sup></a><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Licensing Considerations,</span>”</span> Creative Commons, accessed December
 932 30, 2016, <a class="ulink" href="http://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/licensing-considerations/" target="_top">http://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/licensing-considerations/</a>.
 933           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm291" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm291" class="para"><sup class="para">[20] </sup></a>
 934             Creative Commons, 2015 State of the Commons (Mountain View, CA: Creative
 935 Commons, 2015), <a class="ulink" href="http://stateof.creativecommons.org/2015/" target="_top">http://stateof.creativecommons.org/2015/</a>.
 936           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm297" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm297" class="para"><sup class="para">[21] </sup></a>
 937             Wikipedia, s.v. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Open Government Partnership,</span>”</span> last modified
 938 September 24, 2016, <a class="ulink" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Government_Partnership" target="_top">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Government_Partnership</a>.
 939           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm304" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm304" class="para"><sup class="para">[22] </sup></a>
 940             Capra and Mattei, Ecology of Law, 114.
 941           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm306" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm306" class="para"><sup class="para">[23] </sup></a>
 942             Ibid., 116.
 943           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm309" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm309" class="para"><sup class="para">[24] </sup></a>
 944             The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Stockholm
 945 Statement</span>”</span> accessed February 15, 2017, <a class="ulink" href="http://sida.se/globalassets/sida/eng/press/stockholm-statement.pdf" target="_top">http://sida.se/globalassets/sida/eng/press/stockholm-statement.pdf</a>
 946           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm314" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm314" class="para"><sup class="para">[25] </sup></a>
 947             City of Bologna, Regulation on Collaboration between Citizens and the City
 948 for the Care and Regeneration of Urban Commons, trans. LabGov (LABoratory
 949 for the GOVernance of Commons) (Bologna, Italy: City of Bologna, 2014),
 950 <a class="ulink" href="http://www.labgov.it/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/Bologna-Regulation-on-collaboration-between-citizens-and-the-city-for-the-cure-and-regeneration-of-urban-commons1.pdf" target="_top">http://www.labgov.it/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/Bologna-Regulation-on-collaboration-between-citizens-and-the-city-for-the-cure-and-regeneration-of-urban-commons1.pdf</a>.
 951           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm318" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm318" class="para"><sup class="para">[26] </sup></a>
 952             The Seoul Sharing City website is <a class="ulink" href="http://english.sharehub.kr" target="_top">http://english.sharehub.kr</a>;
 953 for Amsterdam Sharing City, go to <a class="ulink" href="http://www.sharenl.nl/amsterdam-sharing-city/" target="_top">http://www.sharenl.nl/amsterdam-sharing-city/</a>.
 954           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm323" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm323" class="para"><sup class="para">[27] </sup></a>
 955             Tom Slee, What’s Yours Is Mine: Against the Sharing Economy (New York: OR
 956 Books, 2015), 42.
 957           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm326" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm326" class="para"><sup class="para">[28] </sup></a>
 958             Chris Anderson, Free: How Today’s Smartest Businesses Profit by Giving
 959 Something for Nothing, Reprint with new preface.  (New York: Hyperion,
 960 2010), 78.
 961           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm330" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm330" class="para"><sup class="para">[29] </sup></a>
 962             Jeremy Rifkin, The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the
 963 Collaborative Commons, and the Eclipse of Capitalism (New York: Palgrave
 964 Macmillan, 2014), 273.
 965           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm334" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm334" class="para"><sup class="para">[30] </sup></a>
 966             Gar Alperovitz, What Then Must We Do? Straight Talk about the Next American
 967 Revolution: Democratizing Wealth and Building a Community-Sustaining Economy
 968 from the Ground Up (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2013), 39.
 969           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm336" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm336" class="para"><sup class="para">[31] </sup></a>
 970             Marjorie Kelly, Owning Our Future: The Emerging Ownership Revolution;
 971 Journeys to a Generative Economy (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2012),
 972 8–9.
 973           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm341" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm341" class="para"><sup class="para">[32] </sup></a>
 974             Alex Osterwalder and Yves Pigneur, Business Model Generation (Hoboken, NJ:
 975 John Wiley and Sons, 2010). A preview of the book is available at <a class="ulink" href="http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation" target="_top">http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation</a>.
 976           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm346" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm346" class="para"><sup class="para">[33] </sup></a>
 977             This business model canvas is available to download at <a class="ulink" href="http://strategyzer.com/canvas/business-model-canvas" target="_top">http://strategyzer.com/canvas/business-model-canvas</a>.
 978           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm350" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm350" class="para"><sup class="para">[34] </sup></a>
 979             We’ve made the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Open Business Model Canvas,</span>”</span> designed by the
 980 coauthor Paul Stacey, available online at <a class="ulink" href="http://docs.google.com/drawings/d/1QOIDa2qak7wZSSOa4Wv6qVMO77IwkKHN7CYyq0wHivs/edit" target="_top">http://docs.google.com/drawings/d/1QOIDa2qak7wZSSOa4Wv6qVMO77IwkKHN7CYyq0wHivs/edit</a>.
 981 You can also find the accompanying Open Business Model Canvas Questions at
 982 <a class="ulink" href="http://docs.google.com/drawings/d/1kACK7TkoJgsM18HUWCbX9xuQ0Byna4plSVZXZGTtays/edit" target="_top">http://docs.google.com/drawings/d/1kACK7TkoJgsM18HUWCbX9xuQ0Byna4plSVZXZGTtays/edit</a>.
 983           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm358" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm358" class="para"><sup class="para">[35] </sup></a>
 984             A more comprehensive list of revenue streams is available in this post I
 985 wrote on Medium on March 6, 2016. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">What Is an Open Business Model and
 986 How Can You Generate Revenue?</span>”</span>, available at <a class="ulink" href="http://medium.com/made-with-creative-commons/what-is-an-open-business-model-and-how-can-you-generate-revenue-5854d2659b15" target="_top">http://medium.com/made-with-creative-commons/what-is-an-open-business-model-and-how-can-you-generate-revenue-5854d2659b15</a>.
 987           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm369" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm369" class="para"><sup class="para">[36] </sup></a>
 988             Henry Chesbrough, Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and
 989 Profiting from Technology (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2006),
 990 31–44.
 991           </p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="how-to-be-made-with-creative-commons"></a>第 2 章 How to Be Made with Creative Commons</h2></div></div></div><div class="toc"><p><b>目录</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#problem-zero-getting-discovered">Problem Zero: Getting Discovered</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#making-money">Making Money</a></span></dt><dt><span class="sect1"><a href="#making-human-connections">Making Human Connections</a></span></dt></dl></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p></p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
 992     \textit{ Sarah Hinchliff Pearson}
 993     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
 994       When we began this project in August 2015, we set out to write a book about
 995 business models that involve Creative Commons licenses in some significant
 996 way—what we call being Made with Creative Commons. With the help of our
 997 Kickstarter backers, we chose twenty-four endeavors from all around the
 998 world that are Made with Creative Commons. The mix is diverse, from an
 999 individual musician to a university-textbook publisher to an electronics
1000 manufacturer.  Some make their own content and share under Creative Commons
1001 licensing. Others are platforms for CC-licensed creative work made by
1002 others. Many sit somewhere in between, both using and contributing creative
1003 work that’s shared with the public. Like all who use the licenses, these
1004 endeavors share their work—whether it’s open data or furniture designs—in a
1005 way that enables the public not only to access it but also to make use of
1006 it.
1007     </p><p>
1008       We analyzed the revenue models, customer segments, and value propositions of
1009 each endeavor. We searched for ways that putting their content under
1010 Creative Commons licenses helped boost sales or increase reach. Using
1011 traditional measures of economic success, we tried to map these business
1012 models in a way that meaningfully incorporated the impact of Creative
1013 Commons. In our interviews, we dug into the motivations, the role of CC
1014 licenses, modes of revenue generation, definitions of success.
1015     </p><p>
1016       In fairly short order, we realized the book we set out to write was quite
1017 different from the one that was revealing itself in our interviews and
1018 research.
1019     </p><p>
1020       It isn’t that we were wrong to think you can make money while using Creative
1021 Commons licenses. In many instances, CC can help make you more money. Nor
1022 were we wrong that there are business models out there that others who want
1023 to use CC licensing as part of their livelihood or business could
1024 replicate. What we didn’t realize was just how misguided it would be to
1025 write a book about being Made with Creative Commons using only a business
1026 lens.
1027     </p><p>
1028       According to the seminal handbook Business Model Generation, a business
1029 model <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">describes the rationale of how an organization creates,
1030 delivers, and captures value.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm396" class="footnote" name="idm396"><sup class="footnote">[37]</sup></a>
1031 Thinking about sharing in terms of creating and capturing value always felt
1032 inappropriately transactional and out of place, something we heard time and
1033 time again in our interviews. And as Cory Doctorow told us in our interview
1034 with him, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Business model can mean anything you want it to
1035 mean.</span>”</span>
1036     </p><p>
1037       Eventually, we got it. Being Made with Creative Commons is more than a
1038 business model. While we will talk about specific revenue models as one
1039 piece of our analysis (and in more detail in the case studies), we scrapped
1040 that as our guiding rubric for the book.
1041     </p><p>
1042       Admittedly, it took me a long time to get there. When Paul and I divided up
1043 our writing after finishing the research, my charge was to distill
1044 everything we learned from the case studies and write up the practical
1045 lessons and takeaways. I spent months trying to jam what we learned into the
1046 business-model box, convinced there must be some formula for the way things
1047 interacted. But there is no formula. You’ll probably have to discard that
1048 way of thinking before you read any further.
1049     </p><p>
1050       In every interview, we started from the same simple questions.  Amid all the
1051 diversity among the creators, organizations, and businesses we profiled,
1052 there was one constant. Being Made with Creative Commons may be good for
1053 business, but that is not why they do it. Sharing work with Creative Commons
1054 is, at its core, a moral decision. The commercial and other self-interested
1055 benefits are secondary. Most decided to use CC licenses first and found a
1056 revenue model later. This was our first hint that writing a book solely
1057 about the impact of sharing on business might be a little off track.
1058     </p><p>
1059       But we also started to realize something about what it means to be Made with
1060 Creative Commons. When people talked to us about how and why they used CC,
1061 it was clear that it meant something more than using a copyright license. It
1062 also represented a set of values.  There is symbolism behind using CC, and
1063 that symbolism has many layers.
1064     </p><p>
1065       At one level, being Made with Creative Commons expresses an affinity for the
1066 value of Creative Commons. While there are many different flavors of CC
1067 licenses and nearly infinite ways to be Made with Creative Commons, the
1068 basic value system is rooted in a fundamental belief that knowledge and
1069 creativity are building blocks of our culture rather than just commodities
1070 from which to extract market value. These values reflect a belief that the
1071 common good should always be part of the equation when we determine how to
1072 regulate our cultural outputs. They reflect a belief that everyone has
1073 something to contribute, and that no one can own our shared culture. They
1074 reflect a belief in the promise of sharing.
1075     </p><p>
1076       Whether the public makes use of the opportunity to copy and adapt your work,
1077 sharing with a Creative Commons license is a symbol of how you want to
1078 interact with the people who consume your work.  Whenever you create
1079 something, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">all rights reserved</span>”</span> under copyright is automatic,
1080 so the copyright symbol (©) on the work does not necessarily come across as
1081 a marker of distrust or excessive protectionism. But using a CC license can
1082 be a symbol of the opposite—of wanting a real human relationship, rather
1083 than an impersonal market transaction. It leaves open the possibility of
1084 connection.
1085     </p><p>
1086       Being Made with Creative Commons not only demonstrates values connected to
1087 CC and sharing. It also demonstrates that something other than profit drives
1088 what you do. In our interviews, we always asked what success looked like for
1089 them. It was stunning how rarely money was mentioned. Most have a deeper
1090 purpose and a different vision of success.
1091     </p><p>
1092       The driving motivation varies depending on the type of endeavor.  For
1093 individual creators, it is most often about personal inspiration. In some
1094 ways, this is nothing new. As Doctorow has written, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Creators usually
1095 start doing what they do for love.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm410" class="footnote" name="idm410"><sup class="footnote">[38]</sup></a> But when you share your creative work under a CC license, that
1096 dynamic is even more pronounced. Similarly, for technological innovators, it
1097 is often less about creating a specific new thing that will make you rich
1098 and more about solving a specific problem you have. The creators of Arduino
1099 told us that the key question when creating something is <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Do you as
1100 the creator want to use it? It has to have personal use and meaning.</span>”</span>
1101     </p><p>
1102       Many that are Made with Creative Commons have an express social mission that
1103 underpins everything they do. In many cases, sharing with Creative Commons
1104 expressly advances that social mission, and using the licenses can be the
1105 difference between legitimacy and hypocrisy. Noun Project co-founder Edward
1106 Boatman told us they could not have stated their social mission of sharing
1107 with a straight face if they weren’t willing to show the world that it was
1108 OK to share their content using a Creative Commons license.
1109     </p><p>
1110       This dynamic is probably one reason why there are so many nonprofit examples
1111 of being Made with Creative Commons. The content is the result of a labor of
1112 love or a tool to drive social change, and money is like gas in the car,
1113 something that you need to keep going but not an end in itself. Being Made
1114 with Creative Commons is a different vision of a business or livelihood,
1115 where profit is not paramount, and producing social good and human
1116 connection are integral to success.
1117     </p><p>
1118       Even if profit isn’t the end goal, you have to bring in money to be
1119 successfully Made with Creative Commons. At a bare minimum, you have to make
1120 enough money to keep the lights on.
1121     </p><p>
1122       The costs of doing business vary widely for those made with CC, but there is
1123 generally a much lower threshold for sustainability than there used to be
1124 for any creative endeavor. Digital technology has made it easier than ever
1125 to create, and easier than ever to distribute. As Doctorow put it in his
1126 book Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If analog dollars have
1127 turned into digital dimes (as the critics of ad-supported media have it),
1128 there is the fact that it’s possible to run a business that gets the same
1129 amount of advertising as its forebears at a fraction of the price.</span>”</span>
1130     </p><p>
1131       Some creation costs are the same as they always were. It takes the same
1132 amount of time and money to write a peer-reviewed journal article or paint a
1133 painting. Technology can’t change that. But other costs are dramatically
1134 reduced by technology, particularly in production-heavy domains like
1135 filmmaking.<a href="#ftn.idm419" class="footnote" name="idm419"><sup class="footnote">[39]</sup></a> CC-licensed content and
1136 content in the public domain, as well as the work of volunteer
1137 collaborators, can also dramatically reduce costs if they’re being used as
1138 resources to create something new. And, of course, there is the reality that
1139 some content would be created whether or not the creator is paid because it
1140 is a labor of love.
1141     </p><p>
1142       Distributing content is almost universally cheaper than ever. Once content
1143 is created, the costs to distribute copies digitally are essentially
1144 zero.<a href="#ftn.idm422" class="footnote" name="idm422"><sup class="footnote">[40]</sup></a> The costs to distribute physical
1145 copies are still significant, but lower than they have been
1146 historically. And it is now much easier to print and distribute physical
1147 copies on-demand, which also reduces costs. Depending on the endeavor, there
1148 can be a whole host of other possible expenses like marketing and promotion,
1149 and even expenses associated with the various ways money is being made, like
1150 touring or custom training.
1151     </p><p>
1152       It’s important to recognize that the biggest impact of technology on
1153 creative endeavors is that creators can now foot the costs of creation and
1154 distribution themselves. People now often have a direct route to their
1155 potential public without necessarily needing intermediaries like record
1156 labels and book publishers. Doctorow wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If you’re a creator who
1157 never got the time of day from one of the great imperial powers, this is
1158 your time. Where once you had no means of reaching an audience without the
1159 assistance of the industry-dominating megacompanies, now you have hundreds
1160 of ways to do it without them.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm426" class="footnote" name="idm426"><sup class="footnote">[41]</sup></a>
1161 Previously, distribution of creative work involved the costs associated with
1162 sustaining a monolithic entity, now creators can do the work
1163 themselves. That means the financial needs of creative endeavors can be a
1164 lot more modest.
1165     </p><p>
1166       Whether for an individual creator or a larger endeavor, it usually isn’t
1167 enough to break even if you want to make what you’re doing a livelihood. You
1168 need to build in some support for the general operation. This extra bit
1169 looks different for everyone, but importantly, in nearly all cases for those
1170 Made with Creative Commons, the definition of <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">enough money</span>”</span>
1171 looks a lot different than it does in the world of venture capital and stock
1172 options. It is more about sustainability and less about unlimited growth and
1173 profit. SparkFun founder Nathan Seidle told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Business model is a
1174 really grandiose word for it. It is really just about keeping the operation
1175 going day to day.</span>”</span>
1176     </p><p>
1177       This book is a testament to the notion that it is possible to make money
1178 while using CC licenses and CC-licensed content, but we are still very much
1179 at an experimental stage. The creators, organizations, and businesses we
1180 profile in this book are blazing the trail and adapting in real time as they
1181 pursue this new way of operating.
1182     </p><p>
1183       There are, however, plenty of ways in which CC licensing can be good for
1184 business in fairly predictable ways. The first is how it helps solve
1185 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">problem zero.</span>”</span>
1186     </p><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="problem-zero-getting-discovered"></a>Problem Zero: Getting Discovered</h2></div></div></div><p>
1187         Once you create or collect your content, the next step is finding users,
1188 customers, fans—in other words, your people. As Amanda Palmer wrote,
1189 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It has to start with the art. The songs had to touch people
1190 initially, and mean something, for anything to work at
1191 all.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm438" class="footnote" name="idm438"><sup class="footnote">[42]</sup></a> There isn’t any magic to
1192 finding your people, and there is certainly no formula. Your work has to
1193 connect with people and offer them some artistic and/or utilitarian
1194 value. In some ways, this is easier than ever. Online we are not limited by
1195 shelf space, so there is room for every obscure interest, taste, and need
1196 imaginable. This is what Chris Anderson dubbed the Long Tail, where
1197 consumption becomes less about mainstream mass <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">hits</span>”</span> and more
1198 about micromarkets for every particular niche. As Anderson wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We
1199 are all different, with different wants and needs, and the Internet now has
1200 a place for all of them in the way that physical markets did
1201 not.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm442" class="footnote" name="idm442"><sup class="footnote">[43]</sup></a> We are no longer limited
1202 to what appeals to the masses.
1203       </p><p>
1204         While finding <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">your people</span>”</span> online is theoretically easier than
1205 in the analog world, as a practical matter it can still be difficult to
1206 actually get noticed. The Internet is a firehose of content, one that only
1207 grows larger by the minute.  As a content creator, not only are you
1208 competing for attention against more content creators than ever before, you
1209 are competing against creativity generated outside the market as
1210 well.<a href="#ftn.idm446" class="footnote" name="idm446"><sup class="footnote">[44]</sup></a> Anderson wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The
1211 greatest change of the past decade has been the shift in time people spend
1212 consuming amateur content instead of professional
1213 content.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm449" class="footnote" name="idm449"><sup class="footnote">[45]</sup></a> To top it all off, you
1214 have to compete against the rest of their lives, too—<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">friends, family,
1215 music playlists, soccer games, and nights on the town.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm452" class="footnote" name="idm452"><sup class="footnote">[46]</sup></a> Somehow, some way, you have to get noticed by the
1216 right people.
1217       </p><p>
1218         When you come to the Internet armed with an all-rights-reserved mentality
1219 from the start, you are often restricting access to your work before there
1220 is even any demand for it. In many cases, requiring payment for your work is
1221 part of the traditional copyright system. Even a tiny cost has a big effect
1222 on demand.  It’s called the penny gap—the large difference in demand between
1223 something that is available at the price of one cent versus the price of
1224 zero.<a href="#ftn.idm455" class="footnote" name="idm455"><sup class="footnote">[47]</sup></a> That doesn’t mean it is wrong to
1225 charge money for your content. It simply means you need to recognize the
1226 effect that doing so will have on demand. The same principle applies to
1227 restricting access to copy the work. If your problem is how to get
1228 discovered and find <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">your people,</span>”</span> prohibiting people from
1229 copying your work and sharing it with others is counterproductive.
1230       </p><p>
1231         Of course, it’s not that being discovered by people who like your work will
1232 make you rich—far from it. But as Cory Doctorow says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Recognition is
1233 one of many necessary preconditions for artistic
1234 success.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm460" class="footnote" name="idm460"><sup class="footnote">[48]</sup></a>
1235       </p><p>
1236         Choosing not to spend time and energy restricting access to your work and
1237 policing infringement also builds goodwill. Lumen Learning, a for-profit
1238 company that publishes online educational materials, made an early decision
1239 not to prevent students from accessing their content, even in the form of a
1240 tiny paywall, because it would negatively impact student success in a way
1241 that would undermine the social mission behind what they do. They believe
1242 this decision has generated an immense amount of goodwill within the
1243 community.
1244       </p><p>
1245         It is not just that restricting access to your work may undermine your
1246 social mission. It also may alienate the people who most value your creative
1247 work. If people like your work, their natural instinct will be to share it
1248 with others. But as David Bollier wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Our natural human impulses
1249 to imitate and share—the essence of culture—have been
1250 criminalized.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm465" class="footnote" name="idm465"><sup class="footnote">[49]</sup></a>
1251       </p><p>
1252         The fact that copying can carry criminal penalties undoubtedly deters
1253 copying it, but copying with the click of a button is too easy and
1254 convenient to ever fully stop it. Try as the copyright industry might to
1255 persuade us otherwise, copying a copyrighted work just doesn’t feel like
1256 stealing a loaf of bread. And, of course, that’s because it isn’t. Sharing a
1257 creative work has no impact on anyone else’s ability to make use of it.
1258       </p><p>
1259         If you take some amount of copying and sharing your work as a given, you can
1260 invest your time and resources elsewhere, rather than wasting them on
1261 playing a cat and mouse game with people who want to copy and share your
1262 work. Lizzy Jongma from the Rijksmuseum said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We could spend a lot of
1263 money trying to protect works, but people are going to do it anyway. And
1264 they will use bad-quality versions.</span>”</span> Instead, they started releasing
1265 high-resolution digital copies of their collection into the public domain
1266 and making them available for free on their website. For them, sharing was a
1267 form of quality control over the copies that were inevitably being shared
1268 online. Doing this meant forgoing the revenue they previously got from
1269 selling digital images. But Lizzy says that was a small price to pay for all
1270 of the opportunities that sharing unlocked for them.
1271       </p><p>
1272         Being Made with Creative Commons means you stop thinking about ways to
1273 artificially make your content scarce, and instead leverage it as the
1274 potentially abundant resource it is.<a href="#ftn.idm471" class="footnote" name="idm471"><sup class="footnote">[50]</sup></a>
1275 When you see information abundance as a feature, not a bug, you start
1276 thinking about the ways to use the idling capacity of your content to your
1277 advantage. As my friend and colleague Eric Steuer once said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Using CC
1278 licenses shows you get the Internet.</span>”</span>
1279       </p><p>
1280         Cory Doctorow says it costs him nothing when other people make copies of his
1281 work, and it opens the possibility that he might get something in
1282 return.<a href="#ftn.idm475" class="footnote" name="idm475"><sup class="footnote">[51]</sup></a> Similarly, the makers of the
1283 Arduino boards knew it was impossible to stop people from copying their
1284 hardware, so they decided not to even try and instead look for the benefits
1285 of being open. For them, the result is one of the most ubiquitous pieces of
1286 hardware in the world, with a thriving online community of tinkerers and
1287 innovators that have done things with their work they never could have done
1288 otherwise.
1289       </p><p>
1290         There are all kinds of way to leverage the power of sharing and remix to
1291 your benefit. Here are a few.
1292       </p><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="use-cc-to-grow-a-larger-audience"></a>Use CC to grow a larger audience</h3></div></div></div><p>
1293           Putting a Creative Commons license on your content won’t make it
1294 automatically go viral, but eliminating legal barriers to copying the work
1295 certainly can’t hurt the chances that your work will be shared. The CC
1296 license symbolizes that sharing is welcome. It can act as a little tap on
1297 the shoulder to those who come across the work—a nudge to copy the work if
1298 they have any inkling of doing so. All things being equal, if one piece of
1299 content has a sign that says Share and the other says Don’t Share (which is
1300 what <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">©</span>”</span> means), which do you think people are more likely to
1301 share?
1302         </p><p>
1303           The Conversation is an online news site with in-depth articles written by
1304 academics who are experts on particular topics. All of the articles are
1305 CC-licensed, and they are copied and reshared on other sites by design. This
1306 proliferating effect, which they track, is a central part of the value to
1307 their academic authors who want to reach as many readers as possible.
1308         </p><p>
1309           The idea that more eyeballs equates with more success is a form of the max
1310 strategy, adopted by Google and other technology companies. According to
1311 Google’s Eric Schmidt, the idea is simple: <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Take whatever it is you
1312 are doing and do it at the max in terms of distribution. The other way of
1313 saying this is that since marginal cost of distribution is free, you might
1314 as well put things everywhere.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm485" class="footnote" name="idm485"><sup class="footnote">[52]</sup></a>
1315 This strategy is what often motivates companies to make their products and
1316 services free (i.e., no cost), but the same logic applies to making content
1317 freely shareable. Because CC-licensed content is free (as in cost) and can
1318 be freely copied, CC licensing makes it even more accessible and likely to
1319 spread.
1320         </p><p>
1321           If you are successful in reaching more users, readers, listeners, or other
1322 consumers of your work, you can start to benefit from the bandwagon
1323 effect. The simple fact that there are other people consuming or following
1324 your work spurs others to want to do the same.<a href="#ftn.idm488" class="footnote" name="idm488"><sup class="footnote">[53]</sup></a> This is, in part, because we simply have a tendency to engage in
1325 herd behavior, but it is also because a large following is at least a
1326 partial indicator of quality or usefulness.<a href="#ftn.idm490" class="footnote" name="idm490"><sup class="footnote">[54]</sup></a>
1327         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="use-cc-to-get-attribution-and-name-recognition"></a>Use CC to get attribution and name recognition</h3></div></div></div><p>
1328           Every Creative Commons license requires that credit be given to the author,
1329 and that reusers supply a link back to the original source of the
1330 material. CC0, not a license but a tool used to put work in the public
1331 domain, does not make attribution a legal requirement, but many communities
1332 still give credit as a matter of best practices and social norms. In fact,
1333 it is social norms, rather than the threat of legal enforcement, that most
1334 often motivate people to provide attribution and otherwise comply with the
1335 CC license terms anyway. This is the mark of any well-functioning community,
1336 within both the marketplace and the society at large.<a href="#ftn.idm495" class="footnote" name="idm495"><sup class="footnote">[55]</sup></a> CC licenses reflect a set of wishes on the part of
1337 creators, and in the vast majority of circumstances, people are naturally
1338 inclined to follow those wishes. This is particularly the case for something
1339 as straightforward and consistent with basic notions of fairness as
1340 providing credit.
1341         </p><p>
1342           The fact that the name of the creator follows a CC-licensed work makes the
1343 licenses an important means to develop a reputation or, in corporate speak,
1344 a brand. The drive to associate your name with your work is not just based
1345 on commercial motivations, it is fundamental to authorship.  Knowledge
1346 Unlatched is a nonprofit that helps to subsidize the print production of
1347 CC-licensed academic texts by pooling contributions from libraries around
1348 the United States. The CEO, Frances Pinter, says that the Creative Commons
1349 license on the works has a huge value to authors because reputation is the
1350 most important currency for academics. Sharing with CC is a way of having
1351 the most people see and cite your work.
1352         </p><p>
1353           Attribution can be about more than just receiving credit. It can also be
1354 about establishing provenance. People naturally want to know where content
1355 came from—the source of a work is sometimes just as interesting as the work
1356 itself. Opendesk is a platform for furniture designers to share their
1357 designs.  Consumers who like those designs can then get matched with local
1358 makers who turn the designs into real-life furniture.  The fact that I,
1359 sitting in the middle of the United States, can pick out a design created by
1360 a designer in Tokyo and then use a maker within my own community to
1361 transform the design into something tangible is part of the power of their
1362 platform. The provenance of the design is a special part of the product.
1363         </p><p>
1364           Knowing the source of a work is also critical to ensuring its
1365 credibility. Just as a trademark is designed to give consumers a way to
1366 identify the source and quality of a particular good and service, knowing
1367 the author of a work gives the public a way to assess its credibility. In a
1368 time when online discourse is plagued with misinformation, being a trusted
1369 information source is more valuable than ever.
1370         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="use-cc-licensed-content-as-a-marketing-tool"></a>Use CC-licensed content as a marketing tool</h3></div></div></div><p>
1371           As we will cover in more detail later, many endeavors that are Made with
1372 Creative Commons make money by providing a product or service other than the
1373 CC-licensed work. Sometimes that other product or service is completely
1374 unrelated to the CC content. Other times it’s a physical copy or live
1375 performance of the CC content. In all cases, the CC content can attract
1376 people to your other product or service.
1377         </p><p>
1378           Knowledge Unlatched’s Pinter told us she has seen time and again how
1379 offering CC-licensed content—that is, digitally for free—actually increases
1380 sales of the printed goods because it functions as a marketing tool. We see
1381 this phenomenon regularly with famous artwork. The Mona Lisa is likely the
1382 most recognizable painting on the planet. Its ubiquity has the effect of
1383 catalyzing interest in seeing the painting in person, and in owning physical
1384 goods with the image. Abundant copies of the content often entice more
1385 demand, not blunt it.  Another example came with the advent of the
1386 radio. Although the music industry did not see it coming (and fought it!),
1387 free music on the radio functioned as advertising for the paid version
1388 people bought in music stores.<a href="#ftn.idm505" class="footnote" name="idm505"><sup class="footnote">[56]</sup></a> Free can
1389 be a form of promotion.
1390         </p><p>
1391           In some cases, endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons do not even
1392 need dedicated marketing teams or marketing budgets. Cards Against Humanity
1393 is a CC-licensed card game available as a free download. And because of this
1394 (thanks to the CC license on the game), the creators say it is one of the
1395 best-marketed games in the world, and they have never spent a dime on
1396 marketing. The textbook publisher OpenStax has also avoided hiring a
1397 marketing team. Their products are free, or cheaper to buy in the case of
1398 physical copies, which makes them much more attractive to students who then
1399 demand them from their universities. They also partner with service
1400 providers who build atop the CC-licensed content and, in turn, spend money
1401 and resources marketing those services (and by extension, the OpenStax
1402 textbooks).
1403         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="use-cc-to-enable-hands-on-engagement-with-your-work"></a>Use CC to enable hands-on engagement with your work</h3></div></div></div><p>
1404           The great promise of Creative Commons licensing is that it signifies an
1405 embrace of remix culture. Indeed, this is the great promise of digital
1406 technology. The Internet opened up a whole new world of possibilities for
1407 public participation in creative work.
1408         </p><p>
1409           Four of the six CC licenses enable reusers to take apart, build upon, or
1410 otherwise adapt the work. Depending on the context, adaptation can mean
1411 wildly different things—translating, updating, localizing, improving,
1412 transforming. It enables a work to be customized for particular needs, uses,
1413 people, and communities, which is another distinct value to offer the
1414 public.<a href="#ftn.idm512" class="footnote" name="idm512"><sup class="footnote">[57]</sup></a> Adaptation is more game
1415 changing in some contexts than others. With educational materials, the
1416 ability to customize and update the content is critically important for its
1417 usefulness. For photography, the ability to adapt a photo is less important.
1418         </p><p>
1419           This is a way to counteract a potential downside of the abundance of free
1420 and open content described above. As Anderson wrote in Free, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">People
1421 often don’t care as much about things they don’t pay for, and as a result
1422 they don’t think as much about how they consume them.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm516" class="footnote" name="idm516"><sup class="footnote">[58]</sup></a> If even the tiny act of volition of paying one
1423 penny for something changes our perception of that thing, then surely the
1424 act of remixing it enhances our perception exponentially.<a href="#ftn.idm518" class="footnote" name="idm518"><sup class="footnote">[59]</sup></a> We know that people will pay more for products they
1425 had a part in creating.<a href="#ftn.idm520" class="footnote" name="idm520"><sup class="footnote">[60]</sup></a> And we know
1426 that creating something, no matter what quality, brings with it a type of
1427 creative satisfaction that can never be replaced by consuming something
1428 created by someone else.<a href="#ftn.idm522" class="footnote" name="idm522"><sup class="footnote">[61]</sup></a>
1429         </p><p>
1430           Actively engaging with the content helps us avoid the type of aimless
1431 consumption that anyone who has absentmindedly scrolled through their
1432 social-media feeds for an hour knows all too well. In his book, Cognitive
1433 Surplus, Clay Shirky says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">To participate is to act as if your
1434 presence matters, as if, when you see something or hear something, your
1435 response is part of the event.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm526" class="footnote" name="idm526"><sup class="footnote">[62]</sup></a>
1436 Opening the door to your content can get people more deeply tied to your
1437 work.
1438         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="use-cc-to-differentiate-yourself"></a>Use CC to differentiate yourself</h3></div></div></div><p>
1439           Operating under a traditional copyright regime usually means operating under
1440 the rules of establishment players in the media. Business strategies that
1441 are embedded in the traditional copyright system, like using digital rights
1442 management (DRM) and signing exclusivity contracts, can tie the hands of
1443 creators, often at the expense of the creator’s best interest.<a href="#ftn.idm531" class="footnote" name="idm531"><sup class="footnote">[63]</sup></a> Being Made with Creative Commons means you can
1444 function without those barriers and, in many cases, use the increased
1445 openness as a competitive advantage. David Harris from OpenStax said they
1446 specifically pursue strategies they know that traditional publishers
1447 cannot. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Don’t go into a market and play by the incumbent
1448 rules,</span>”</span> David said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Change the rules of engagement.</span>”</span>
1449         </p></div></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="making-money"></a>Making Money</h2></div></div></div><p>
1450         Like any moneymaking endeavor, those that are Made with Creative Commons
1451 have to generate some type of value for their audience or
1452 customers. Sometimes that value is subsidized by funders who are not
1453 actually beneficiaries of that value. Funders, whether philanthropic
1454 institutions, governments, or concerned individuals, provide money to the
1455 organization out of a sense of pure altruism. This is the way traditional
1456 nonprofit funding operates.<a href="#ftn.idm538" class="footnote" name="idm538"><sup class="footnote">[64]</sup></a> But in many
1457 cases, the revenue streams used by endeavors that are Made with Creative
1458 Commons are directly tied to the value they generate, where the recipient is
1459 paying for the value they receive like any standard market transaction. In
1460 still other cases, rather than the quid pro quo exchange of money for value
1461 that typically drives market transactions, the recipient gives money out of
1462 a sense of reciprocity.
1463       </p><p>
1464         Most who are Made with Creative Commons use a variety of methods to bring in
1465 revenue, some market-based and some not. One common strategy is using grant
1466 funding for content creation when research-and-development costs are
1467 particularly high, and then finding a different revenue stream (or streams)
1468 for ongoing expenses. As Shirky wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The trick is in knowing when
1469 markets are an optimal way of organizing interactions and when they are
1470 not.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm544" class="footnote" name="idm544"><sup class="footnote">[65]</sup></a>
1471       </p><p>
1472         Our case studies explore in more detail the various revenue-generating
1473 mechanisms used by the creators, organizations, and businesses we
1474 interviewed. There is nuance hidden within the specific ways each of them
1475 makes money, so it is a bit dangerous to generalize too much about what we
1476 learned.  Nonetheless, zooming out and viewing things from a higher level of
1477 abstraction can be instructive.
1478       </p><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="market-based-revenue-streams"></a>Market-based revenue streams</h3></div></div></div><p>
1479           In the market, the central question when determining how to bring in revenue
1480 is what value people are willing to pay for.<a href="#ftn.idm550" class="footnote" name="idm550"><sup class="footnote">[66]</sup></a> By definition, if you are Made with Creative Commons, the content
1481 you provide is available for free and not a market commodity. Like the
1482 ubiquitous freemium business model, any possible market transaction with a
1483 consumer of your content has to be based on some added value you
1484 provide.<a href="#ftn.idm552" class="footnote" name="idm552"><sup class="footnote">[67]</sup></a>
1485         </p><p>
1486           In many ways, this is the way of the future for all content-driven
1487 endeavors. In the market, value lives in things that are scarce. Because the
1488 Internet makes a universe of content available to all of us for free, it is
1489 difficult to get people to pay for content online. The struggling newspaper
1490 industry is a testament to this fact. This is compounded by the fact that at
1491 least some amount of copying is probably inevitable. That means you may end
1492 up competing with free versions of your own content, whether you condone it
1493 or not.<a href="#ftn.idm555" class="footnote" name="idm555"><sup class="footnote">[68]</sup></a> If people can easily find your
1494 content for free, getting people to buy it will be difficult, particularly
1495 in a context where access to content is more important than owning it. In
1496 Free, Anderson wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Copyright protection schemes, whether coded
1497 into either law or software, are simply holding up a price against the force
1498 of gravity.</span>”</span>
1499         </p><p>
1500           Of course, this doesn’t mean that content-driven endeavors have no future in
1501 the traditional marketplace. In Free, Anderson explains how when one product
1502 or service becomes free, as information and content largely have in the
1503 digital age, other things become more valuable. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Every abundance
1504 creates a new scarcity,</span>”</span> he wrote. You just have to find some way
1505 other than the content to provide value to your audience or customers. As
1506 Anderson says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s easy to compete with Free: simply offer something
1507 better or at least different from the free version.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm561" class="footnote" name="idm561"><sup class="footnote">[69]</sup></a>
1508         </p><p>
1509           In light of this reality, in some ways endeavors that are Made with Creative
1510 Commons are at a level playing field with all content-based endeavors in the
1511 digital age. In fact, they may even have an advantage because they can use
1512 the abundance of content to derive revenue from something scarce. They can
1513 also benefit from the goodwill that stems from the values behind being Made
1514 with Creative Commons.
1515         </p><p>
1516           For content creators and distributors, there are nearly infinite ways to
1517 provide value to the consumers of your work, above and beyond the value that
1518 lives within your free digital content. Often, the CC-licensed content
1519 functions as a marketing tool for the paid product or service.
1520         </p><p>
1521           Here are the most common high-level categories.
1522         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="providing-a-custom-service-to-consumers-of-your-work-market-based"></a>Providing a custom service to consumers of your work
1523 <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1524           In this age of information abundance, we don’t lack for content. The trick
1525 is finding content that matches our needs and wants, so customized services
1526 are particularly valuable.  As Anderson wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Commodity information
1527 (everybody gets the same version) wants to be free. Customized information
1528 (you get something unique and meaningful to you)  wants to be
1529 expensive.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm571" class="footnote" name="idm571"><sup class="footnote">[70]</sup></a> This can be anything
1530 from the artistic and cultural consulting services provided by Ártica to the
1531 custom-song business of Jonathan <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Song-A-Day</span>”</span> Mann.
1532         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="charging-for-the-physical-copy-market-based"></a>Charging for the physical copy <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1533           In his book about maker culture, Anderson characterizes this model as giving
1534 away the bits and selling the atoms (where bits refers to digital content
1535 and atoms refer to a physical object).<a href="#ftn.idm578" class="footnote" name="idm578"><sup class="footnote">[71]</sup></a>
1536 This is particularly successful in domains where the digital version of the
1537 content isn’t as valuable as the analog version, like book publishing where
1538 a significant subset of people still prefer reading something they can hold
1539 in their hands. Or in domains where the content isn’t useful until it is in
1540 physical form, like furniture designs. In those situations, a significant
1541 portion of consumers will pay for the convenience of having someone else put
1542 the physical version together for them. Some endeavors squeeze even more out
1543 of this revenue stream by using a Creative Commons license that only allows
1544 noncommercial uses, which means no one else can sell physical copies of
1545 their work in competition with them. This strategy of reserving commercial
1546 rights can be particularly important for items like books, where every
1547 printed copy of the same work is likely to be the same quality, so it is
1548 harder to differentiate one publishing service from another. On the other
1549 hand, for items like furniture or electronics, the provider of the physical
1550 goods can compete with other providers of the same works based on quality,
1551 service, or other traditional business principles.
1552         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="charging-for-the-in-person-version-market-based"></a>Charging for the in-person version <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1553           As anyone who has ever gone to a concert will tell you, experiencing
1554 creativity in person is a completely different experience from consuming a
1555 digital copy on your own. Far from acting as a substitute for face-to-face
1556 interaction, CC-licensed content can actually create demand for the
1557 in-person version of experience. You can see this effect when people go view
1558 original art in person or pay to attend a talk or training course.
1559         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="selling-merchandise-market-based"></a>Selling merchandise <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1560           In many cases, people who like your work will pay for products demonstrating
1561 a connection to your work. As a child of the 1980s, I can personally attest
1562 to the power of a good concert T-shirt. This can also be an important
1563 revenue stream for museums and galleries.
1564         </p><p>
1565           Sometimes the way to find a market-based revenue stream is by providing
1566 value to people other than those who consume your CC-licensed content. In
1567 these revenue streams, the free content is being subsidized by an entirely
1568 different category of people or businesses. Often, those people or
1569 businesses are paying to access your main audience. The fact that the
1570 content is free increases the size of the audience, which in turn makes the
1571 offer more valuable to the paying customers. This is a variation of a
1572 traditional business model built on free called multi-sided
1573 platforms.<a href="#ftn.idm589" class="footnote" name="idm589"><sup class="footnote">[72]</sup></a> Access to your audience
1574 isn’t the only thing people are willing to pay for—there are other services
1575 you can provide as well.
1576         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="charging-advertisers-or-sponsors-market-based"></a>Charging advertisers or sponsors <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1577           The traditional model of subsidizing free content is advertising. In this
1578 version of multi-sided platforms, advertisers pay for the opportunity to
1579 reach the set of eyeballs the content creators provide in the form of their
1580 audience.<a href="#ftn.idm595" class="footnote" name="idm595"><sup class="footnote">[73]</sup></a> The Internet has made this
1581 model more difficult because the number of potential channels available to
1582 reach those eyeballs has become essentially infinite.<a href="#ftn.idm597" class="footnote" name="idm597"><sup class="footnote">[74]</sup></a> Nonetheless, it remains a viable revenue stream for
1583 many content creators, including those who are Made with Creative
1584 Commons. Often, instead of paying to display advertising, the advertiser
1585 pays to be an official sponsor of particular content or projects, or of the
1586 overall endeavor.
1587         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="charging-your-content-creators-market-based"></a>Charging your content creators <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1588           Another type of multisided platform is where the content creators themselves
1589 pay to be featured on the platform.  Obviously, this revenue stream is only
1590 available to those who rely on work created, at least in part, by
1591 others. The most well-known version of this model is the
1592 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">author-processing charge</span>”</span> of open-access journals like those
1593 published by the Public Library of Science, but there are other
1594 variations. The Conversation is primarily funded by a university-membership
1595 model, where universities pay to have their faculties participate as writers
1596 of the content on the Conversation website.
1597         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="charging-a-transaction-fee-market-based"></a>Charging a transaction fee <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1598           This is a version of a traditional business model based on brokering
1599 transactions between parties.<a href="#ftn.idm608" class="footnote" name="idm608"><sup class="footnote">[75]</sup></a> Curation
1600 is an important element of this model.  Platforms like the Noun Project add
1601 value by wading through CC-licensed content to curate a high-quality set and
1602 then derive revenue when creators of that content make transactions with
1603 customers. Other platforms make money when service providers transact with
1604 their customers; for example, Opendesk makes money every time someone on
1605 their site pays a maker to make furniture based on one of the designs on the
1606 platform.
1607         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="providing-a-service-to-your-creators-market-based"></a>Providing a service to your creators <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1608           As mentioned above, endeavors can make money by providing customized
1609 services to their users. Platforms can undertake a variation of this service
1610 model directed at the creators that provide the content they feature. The
1611 data platforms Figure.NZ and Figshare both capitalize on this model by
1612 providing paid tools to help their users make the data they contribute to
1613 the platform more discoverable and reusable.
1614         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="licensing-a-trademark-market-based"></a>Licensing a trademark <span class="emphasis"><em>[MARKET-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1615           Finally, some that are Made with Creative Commons make money by selling use
1616 of their trademarks. Well known brands that consumers associate with
1617 quality, credibility, or even an ethos can license that trademark to
1618 companies that want to take advantage of that goodwill. By definition,
1619 trademarks are scarce because they represent a particular source of a good
1620 or service. Charging for the ability to use that trademark is a way of
1621 deriving revenue from something scarce while taking advantage of the
1622 abundance of CC content.
1623         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="reciprocity-based-revenue-streams"></a>Reciprocity-based revenue streams</h3></div></div></div><p>
1624           Even if we set aside grant funding, we found that the traditional economic
1625 framework of understanding the market failed to fully capture the ways the
1626 endeavors we analyzed were making money. It was not simply about monetizing
1627 scarcity.
1628         </p><p>
1629           Rather than devising a scheme to get people to pay money in exchange for
1630 some direct value provided to them, many of the revenue streams were more
1631 about providing value, building a relationship, and then eventually finding
1632 some money that flows back out of a sense of reciprocity. While some look
1633 like traditional nonprofit funding models, they aren’t charity. The endeavor
1634 exchange value with people, just not necessarily synchronously or in a way
1635 that requires that those values be equal. As David Bollier wrote in Think
1636 Like a Commoner, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is no self-serving calculation of whether the
1637 value given and received is strictly equal.</span>”</span>
1638         </p><p>
1639           This should be a familiar dynamic—it is the way you deal with your friends
1640 and family. We give without regard for what and when we will get back. David
1641 Bollier wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Reciprocal social exchange lies at the heart of human
1642 identity, community and culture. It is a vital brain function that helps the
1643 human species survive and evolve.</span>”</span>
1644         </p><p>
1645           What is rare is to incorporate this sort of relationship into an endeavor
1646 that also engages with the market.<a href="#ftn.idm626" class="footnote" name="idm626"><sup class="footnote">[76]</sup></a> We
1647 almost can’t help but think of relationships in the market as being centered
1648 on an even-steven exchange of value.<a href="#ftn.idm628" class="footnote" name="idm628"><sup class="footnote">[77]</sup></a>
1649         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="memberships-and-individual-donations-reciprocity-based"></a>Memberships and individual donations
1650 <span class="emphasis"><em>[RECIPROCITY-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1651           While memberships and donations are traditional nonprofit funding models, in
1652 the Made with Creative Commons context, they are directly tied to the
1653 reciprocal relationship that is cultivated with the beneficiaries of their
1654 work. The bigger the pool of those receiving value from the content, the
1655 more likely this strategy will work, given that only a small percentage of
1656 people are likely to contribute. Since using CC licenses can grease the
1657 wheels for content to reach more people, this strategy can be more effective
1658 for endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons. The greater the argument
1659 that the content is a public good or that the entire endeavor is furthering
1660 a social mission, the more likely this strategy is to succeed.
1661         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="the-pay-what-you-want-model-reciprocity-based"></a>The pay-what-you-want model <span class="emphasis"><em>[RECIPROCITY-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1662           In the pay-what-you-want model, the beneficiary of Creative Commons content
1663 is invited to give—at any amount they can and feel is appropriate, based on
1664 the public and personal value they feel is generated by the open
1665 content. Critically, these models are not touted as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">buying</span>”</span>
1666 something free.  They are similar to a tip jar. People make financial
1667 contributions as an act of gratitude. These models capitalize on the fact
1668 that we are naturally inclined to give money for things we value in the
1669 marketplace, even in situations where we could find a way to get it for
1670 free.
1671         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="crowdfunding-reciprocity-based"></a>Crowdfunding <span class="emphasis"><em>[RECIPROCITY-BASED]</em></span></h3></div></div></div><p>
1672           Crowdfunding models are based on recouping the costs of creating and
1673 distributing content before the content is created. If the endeavor is Made
1674 with Creative Commons, anyone who wants the work in question could simply
1675 wait until it’s created and then access it for free. That means, for this
1676 model to work, people have to care about more than just receiving the
1677 work. They have to want you to succeed. Amanda Palmer credits the success of
1678 her crowdfunding on Kickstarter and Patreon to the years she spent building
1679 her community and creating a connection with her fans. She wrote in The Art
1680 of Asking, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Good art is made, good art is shared, help is offered,
1681 ears are bent, emotions are exchanged, the compost of real, deep connection
1682 is sprayed all over the fields. Then one day, the artist steps up and asks
1683 for something. And if the ground has been fertilized enough, the audience
1684 says, without hesitation: of course.</span>”</span>
1685         </p><p>
1686           Other types of crowdfunding rely on a sense of responsibility that a
1687 particular community may feel. Knowledge Unlatched pools funds from major
1688 U.S. libraries to subsidize CC-licensed academic work that will be, by
1689 definition, available to everyone for free. Libraries with bigger budgets
1690 tend to give more out of a sense of commitment to the library community and
1691 to the idea of open access generally.
1692         </p></div></div><div class="sect1"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both"><a name="making-human-connections"></a>Making Human Connections</h2></div></div></div><p>
1693         Regardless of how they made money, in our interviews, we repeatedly heard
1694 language like <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">persuading people to buy</span>”</span> and <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">inviting
1695 people to pay.</span>”</span> We heard it even in connection with revenue streams
1696 that sit squarely within the market. Cory Doctorow told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I have to
1697 convince my readers that the right thing to do is to pay me.</span>”</span> The
1698 founders of the for-profit company Lumen Learning showed us the letter they
1699 send to those who opt not to pay for the services they provide in connection
1700 with their CC-licensed educational content. It isn’t a cease-and-desist
1701 letter; it’s an invitation to pay because it’s the right thing to do. This
1702 sort of behavior toward what could be considered nonpaying customers is
1703 largely unheard of in the traditional marketplace. But it seems to be part
1704 of the fabric of being Made with Creative Commons.
1705       </p><p>
1706         Nearly every endeavor we profiled relied, at least in part, on people being
1707 invested in what they do. The closer the Creative Commons content is to
1708 being <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">the product,</span>”</span> the more pronounced this dynamic has to
1709 be. Rather than simply selling a product or service, they are making
1710 ideological, personal, and creative connections with the people who value
1711 what they do.
1712       </p><p>
1713         It took me a very long time to see how this avoidance of thinking about what
1714 they do in pure market terms was deeply tied to being Made with Creative
1715 Commons.
1716       </p><p>
1717         I came to the research with preconceived notions about what Creative Commons
1718 is and what it means to be Made with Creative Commons. It turned out I was
1719 wrong on so many counts.
1720       </p><p>
1721         Obviously, being Made with Creative Commons means using Creative Commons
1722 licenses. That much I knew. But in our interviews, people spoke of so much
1723 more than copyright permissions when they explained how sharing fit into
1724 what they do. I was thinking about sharing too narrowly, and as a result, I
1725 was missing vast swaths of the meaning packed within Creative
1726 Commons. Rather than parsing the specific and narrow role of the copyright
1727 license in the equation, it is important not to disaggregate the rest of
1728 what comes with sharing. You have to widen the lens.
1729       </p><p>
1730         Being Made with Creative Commons is not just about the simple act of
1731 licensing a copyrighted work under a set of standardized terms, but also
1732 about community, social good, contributing ideas, expressing a value system,
1733 working together. These components of sharing are hard to cultivate if you
1734 think about what you do in purely market terms. Decent social behavior isn’t
1735 as intuitive when we are doing something that involves monetary exchange. It
1736 takes a conscious effort to foster the context for real sharing, based not
1737 strictly on impersonal market exchange, but on connections with the people
1738 with whom you share—connections with you, with your work, with your values,
1739 with each other.
1740       </p><p>
1741         The rest of this section will explore some of the common strategies that
1742 creators, companies, and organizations use to remind us that there are
1743 humans behind every creative endeavor.  To remind us we have obligations to
1744 each other. To remind us what sharing really looks like.
1745       </p><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="be-human"></a>Be human</h3></div></div></div><p>
1746           Humans are social animals, which means we are naturally inclined to treat
1747 each other well.<a href="#ftn.idm661" class="footnote" name="idm661"><sup class="footnote">[78]</sup></a> But the further
1748 removed we are from the person with whom we are interacting, the less caring
1749 our behavior will be. While the Internet has democratized cultural
1750 production, increased access to knowledge, and connected us in extraordinary
1751 ways, it can also make it easy forget we are dealing with another human.
1752         </p><p>
1753           To counteract the anonymous and impersonal tendencies of how we operate
1754 online, individual creators and corporations who use Creative Commons
1755 licenses work to demonstrate their humanity. For some, this means pouring
1756 their lives out on the page. For others, it means showing their creative
1757 process, giving a glimpse into how they do what they do. As writer Austin
1758 Kleon wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Our work doesn’t speak for itself.  Human beings want to
1759 know where things came from, how they were made, and who made them. The
1760 stories you tell about the work you do have a huge effect on how people feel
1761 and what they understand about your work, and how people feel and what they
1762 understand about your work affects how they value it.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm665" class="footnote" name="idm665"><sup class="footnote">[79]</sup></a>
1763         </p><p>
1764           A critical component to doing this effectively is not worrying about being a
1765 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">brand.</span>”</span> That means not being afraid to be vulnerable. Amanda
1766 Palmer says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">When you’re afraid of someone’s judgment, you can’t
1767 connect with them. You’re too preoccupied with the task of impressing
1768 them.</span>”</span> Not everyone is suited to live life as an open book like
1769 Palmer, and that’s OK. There are a lot of ways to be human. The trick is
1770 just avoiding pretense and the temptation to artificially craft an
1771 image. People don’t just want the glossy version of you. They can’t relate
1772 to it, at least not in a meaningful way.
1773         </p><p>
1774           This advice is probably even more important for businesses and organizations
1775 because we instinctively conceive of them as nonhuman (though in the United
1776 States, corporations are people!). When corporations and organizations make
1777 the people behind them more apparent, it reminds people that they are
1778 dealing with something other than an anonymous corporate entity. In
1779 business-speak, this is about <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">humanizing your interactions</span>”</span>
1780 with the public.<a href="#ftn.idm672" class="footnote" name="idm672"><sup class="footnote">[80]</sup></a> But it can’t be a
1781 gimmick. You can’t fake being human.
1782         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="be-open-and-accountable"></a>Be open and accountable</h3></div></div></div><p>
1783           Transparency helps people understand who you are and why you do what you do,
1784 but it also inspires trust. Max Temkin of Cards Against Humanity told us,
1785 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">One of the most surprising things you can do in capitalism is just be
1786 honest with people.</span>”</span> That means sharing the good and the bad.  As
1787 Amanda Palmer wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">You can fix almost anything by authentically
1788 communicating.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm679" class="footnote" name="idm679"><sup class="footnote">[81]</sup></a> It isn’t about
1789 trying to satisfy everyone or trying to sugarcoat mistakes or bad news, but
1790 instead about explaining your rationale and then being prepared to defend it
1791 when people are critical.<a href="#ftn.idm681" class="footnote" name="idm681"><sup class="footnote">[82]</sup></a>
1792         </p><p>
1793           Being accountable does not mean operating on consensus.  According to James
1794 Surowiecki, consensus-driven groups tend to resort to
1795 lowest-common-denominator solutions and avoid the sort of candid exchange of
1796 ideas that cultivates healthy collaboration.<a href="#ftn.idm684" class="footnote" name="idm684"><sup class="footnote">[83]</sup></a> Instead, it can be as simple as asking for input and then giving
1797 context and explanation about decisions you make, even if soliciting
1798 feedback and inviting discourse is time-consuming. If you don’t go through
1799 the effort to actually respond to the input you receive, it can be worse
1800 than not inviting input in the first place.<a href="#ftn.idm686" class="footnote" name="idm686"><sup class="footnote">[84]</sup></a> But when you get it right, it can guarantee the type of diversity
1801 of thought that helps endeavors excel. And it is another way to get people
1802 involved and invested in what you do.
1803         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="design-for-the-good-actors"></a>Design for the good actors</h3></div></div></div><p>
1804           Traditional economics assumes people make decisions based solely on their
1805 own economic self-interest.<a href="#ftn.idm691" class="footnote" name="idm691"><sup class="footnote">[85]</sup></a> Any
1806 relatively introspective human knows this is a fiction—we are much more
1807 complicated beings with a whole range of needs, emotions, and
1808 motivations. In fact, we are hardwired to work together and ensure
1809 fairness.<a href="#ftn.idm693" class="footnote" name="idm693"><sup class="footnote">[86]</sup></a> Being Made with Creative
1810 Commons requires an assumption that people will largely act on those social
1811 motivations, motivations that would be considered <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">irrational</span>”</span>
1812 in an economic sense. As Knowledge Unlatched’s Pinter told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It is
1813 best to ignore people who try to scare you about free riding. That fear is
1814 based on a very shallow view of what motivates human behavior.</span>”</span> There
1815 will always be people who will act in purely selfish ways, but endeavors
1816 that are Made with Creative Commons design for the good actors.
1817         </p><p>
1818           The assumption that people will largely do the right thing can be a
1819 self-fulfilling prophecy. Shirky wrote in Cognitive Surplus, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Systems
1820 that assume people will act in ways that create public goods, and that give
1821 them opportunities and rewards for doing so, often let them work together
1822 better than neoclassical economics would predict.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm699" class="footnote" name="idm699"><sup class="footnote">[87]</sup></a> When we acknowledge that people are often motivated
1823 by something other than financial self-interest, we design our endeavors in
1824 ways that encourage and accentuate our social instincts.
1825         </p><p>
1826           Rather than trying to exert control over people’s behavior, this mode of
1827 operating requires a certain level of trust. We might not realize it, but
1828 our daily lives are already built on trust. As Surowiecki wrote in The
1829 Wisdom of Crowds, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s impossible for a society to rely on law alone
1830 to make sure citizens act honestly and responsibly. And it’s impossible for
1831 any organization to rely on contracts alone to make sure that its managers
1832 and workers live up to their obligation.</span>”</span> Instead, we largely trust
1833 that people—mostly strangers—will do what they are supposed to
1834 do.<a href="#ftn.idm703" class="footnote" name="idm703"><sup class="footnote">[88]</sup></a> And most often, they do.
1835         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="treat-humans-like-well-humans"></a>Treat humans like, well, humans</h3></div></div></div><p>
1836           For creators, treating people as humans means not treating them like
1837 fans. As Kleon says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If you want fans, you have to be a fan
1838 first.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm709" class="footnote" name="idm709"><sup class="footnote">[89]</sup></a> Even if you happen to be
1839 one of the few to reach celebrity levels of fame, you are better off
1840 remembering that the people who follow your work are human, too. Cory
1841 Doctorow makes a point to answer every single email someone sends him.
1842 Amanda Palmer spends vast quantities of time going online to communicate
1843 with her public, making a point to listen just as much as she
1844 talks.<a href="#ftn.idm711" class="footnote" name="idm711"><sup class="footnote">[90]</sup></a>
1845         </p><p>
1846           The same idea goes for businesses and organizations. Rather than automating
1847 its customer service, the music platform Tribe of Noise makes a point to
1848 ensure its employees have personal, one-on-one interaction with users.
1849         </p><p>
1850           When we treat people like humans, they typically return the gift in
1851 kind. It’s called karma. But social relationships are fragile. It is all too
1852 easy to destroy them if you make the mistake of treating people as anonymous
1853 customers or free labor.<a href="#ftn.idm715" class="footnote" name="idm715"><sup class="footnote">[91]</sup></a> Platforms that
1854 rely on content from contributors are especially at risk of creating an
1855 exploitative dynamic. It is important to find ways to acknowledge and pay
1856 back the value that contributors generate. That does not mean you can solve
1857 this problem by simply paying contributors for their time or
1858 contributions. As soon as we introduce money into a relationship—at least
1859 when it takes a form of paying monetary value in exchange for other value—it
1860 can dramatically change the dynamic.<a href="#ftn.idm717" class="footnote" name="idm717"><sup class="footnote">[92]</sup></a>
1861         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="state-your-principles-and-stick-to-them"></a>State your principles and stick to them</h3></div></div></div><p>
1862           Being Made with Creative Commons makes a statement about who you are and
1863 what you do. The symbolism is powerful. Using Creative Commons licenses
1864 demonstrates adherence to a particular belief system, which generates
1865 goodwill and connects like-minded people to your work. Sometimes people will
1866 be drawn to endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons as a way of
1867 demonstrating their own commitment to the Creative Commons value system,
1868 akin to a political statement. Other times people will identify and feel
1869 connected with an endeavor’s separate social mission. Often both.
1870         </p><p>
1871           The expression of your values doesn’t have to be implicit. In fact, many of
1872 the people we interviewed talked about how important it is to state your
1873 guiding principles up front.  Lumen Learning attributes a lot of their
1874 success to having been outspoken about the fundamental values that guide
1875 what they do. As a for-profit company, they think their expressed commitment
1876 to low-income students and open licensing has been critical to their
1877 credibility in the OER (open educational resources) community in which they
1878 operate.
1879         </p><p>
1880           When your end goal is not about making a profit, people trust that you
1881 aren’t just trying to extract value for your own gain. People notice when
1882 you have a sense of purpose that transcends your own
1883 self-interest.<a href="#ftn.idm724" class="footnote" name="idm724"><sup class="footnote">[93]</sup></a> It attracts committed
1884 employees, motivates contributors, and builds trust.
1885         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="build-a-community"></a>Build a community</h3></div></div></div><p>
1886           Endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons thrive when community is built
1887 around what they do. This may mean a community collaborating together to
1888 create something new, or it may simply be a collection of like-minded people
1889 who get to know each other and rally around common interests or
1890 beliefs.<a href="#ftn.idm729" class="footnote" name="idm729"><sup class="footnote">[94]</sup></a> To a certain extent, simply
1891 being Made with Creative Commons automatically brings with it some element
1892 of community, by helping connect you to like-minded others who recognize and
1893 are drawn to the values symbolized by using CC.
1894         </p><p>
1895           To be sustainable, though, you have to work to nurture community. People
1896 have to care—about you and each other. One critical piece to this is
1897 fostering a sense of belonging. As Jono Bacon writes in The Art of
1898 Community, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If there is no belonging, there is no community.</span>”</span>
1899 For Amanda Palmer and her band, that meant creating an accepting and
1900 inclusive environment where people felt a part of their <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">weird little
1901 family.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm734" class="footnote" name="idm734"><sup class="footnote">[95]</sup></a> For organizations like
1902 Red Hat, that means connecting around common beliefs or goals. As the CEO
1903 Jim Whitehurst wrote in The Open Organization, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Tapping into passion
1904 is especially important in building the kinds of participative communities
1905 that drive open organizations.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm737" class="footnote" name="idm737"><sup class="footnote">[96]</sup></a>
1906         </p><p>
1907           Communities that collaborate together take deliberate planning. Surowiecki
1908 wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It takes a lot of work to put the group together. It’s
1909 difficult to ensure that people are working in the group’s interest and not
1910 in their own. And when there’s a lack of trust between the members of the
1911 group (which isn’t surprising given that they don’t really know each other),
1912 considerable energy is wasted trying to determine each other’s bona
1913 fides.</span>”</span><a href="#ftn.idm741" class="footnote" name="idm741"><sup class="footnote">[97]</sup></a> Building true community
1914 requires giving people within the community the power to create or influence
1915 the rules that govern the community.<a href="#ftn.idm743" class="footnote" name="idm743"><sup class="footnote">[98]</sup></a> If
1916 the rules are created and imposed in a top-down manner, people feel like
1917 they don’t have a voice, which in turn leads to disengagement.
1918         </p><p>
1919           Community takes work, but working together, or even simply being connected
1920 around common interests or values, is in many ways what sharing is about.
1921         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="give-more-to-the-commons-than-you-take"></a>Give more to the commons than you take</h3></div></div></div><p>
1922           Conventional wisdom in the marketplace dictates that people should try to
1923 extract as much money as possible from resources. This is essentially what
1924 defines so much of the so-called sharing economy. In an article on the
1925 Harvard Business Review website called <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Sharing Economy Isn’t
1926 about Sharing at All,</span>”</span> authors Giana Eckhardt and Fleura Bardhi
1927 explained how the anonymous market-driven trans-actions in most
1928 sharing-economy businesses are purely about monetizing access.<a href="#ftn.idm750" class="footnote" name="idm750"><sup class="footnote">[99]</sup></a> As Lisa Gansky put it in her book The Mesh, the
1929 primary strategy of the sharing economy is to sell the same product multiple
1930 times, by selling access rather than ownership.<a href="#ftn.idm754" class="footnote" name="idm754"><sup class="footnote">[100]</sup></a> That is not sharing.
1931         </p><p>
1932           Sharing requires adding as much or more value to the ecosystem than you
1933 take. You can’t simply treat open content as a free pool of resources from
1934 which to extract value. Part of giving back to the ecosystem is contributing
1935 content back to the public under CC licenses. But it doesn’t have to just be
1936 about creating content; it can be about adding value in other ways.  The
1937 social blogging platform Medium provides value to its community by
1938 incentivizing good behavior, and the result is an online space with
1939 remarkably high-quality user-generated content and limited
1940 trolling.<a href="#ftn.idm757" class="footnote" name="idm757"><sup class="footnote">[101]</sup></a> Opendesk contributes to its
1941 community by committing to help its designers make money, in part by
1942 actively curating and displaying their work on its platform effectively.
1943         </p><p>
1944           In all cases, it is important to openly acknowledge the amount of value you
1945 add versus that which you draw on that was created by others. Being
1946 transparent about this builds credibility and shows you are a contributing
1947 player in the commons. When your endeavor is making money, that also means
1948 apportioning financial compensation in a way that reflects the value
1949 contributed by others, providing more to contributors when the value they
1950 add outweighs the value provided by you.
1951         </p></div><div class="sect2"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title"><a name="involve-people-in-what-you-do"></a>Involve people in what you do</h3></div></div></div><p>
1952           Thanks to the Internet, we can tap into the talents and expertise of people
1953 around the globe. Chris Anderson calls it the Long Tail of
1954 talent.<a href="#ftn.idm765" class="footnote" name="idm765"><sup class="footnote">[102]</sup></a> But to make collaboration work,
1955 the group has to be effective at what it is doing, and the people within the
1956 group have to find satisfaction from being involved.<a href="#ftn.idm767" class="footnote" name="idm767"><sup class="footnote">[103]</sup></a> This is easier to facilitate for some types of
1957 creative work than it is for others. Groups tied together online collaborate
1958 best when people can work independently and asynchronously, and particularly
1959 for larger groups with loose ties, when contributors can make simple
1960 improvements without a particularly heavy time commitment.<a href="#ftn.idm769" class="footnote" name="idm769"><sup class="footnote">[104]</sup></a>
1961         </p><p>
1962           As the success of Wikipedia demonstrates, editing an online encyclopedia is
1963 exactly the sort of activity that is perfect for massive co-creation because
1964 small, incremental edits made by a diverse range of people acting on their
1965 own are immensely valuable in the aggregate. Those same sorts of small
1966 contributions would be less useful for many other types of creative work,
1967 and people are inherently less motivated to contribute when it doesn’t
1968 appear that their efforts will make much of a difference.<a href="#ftn.idm772" class="footnote" name="idm772"><sup class="footnote">[105]</sup></a>
1969         </p><p>
1970           It is easy to romanticize the opportunities for global cocreation made
1971 possible by the Internet, and, indeed, the successful examples of it are
1972 truly incredible and inspiring.  But in a wide range of
1973 circumstances—perhaps more often than not—community cocreation is not part
1974 of the equation, even within endeavors built on CC content. Shirky wrote,
1975 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Sometimes the value of professional work trumps the value of amateur
1976 sharing or a feeling of belonging.<a href="#ftn.idm776" class="footnote" name="idm776"><sup class="footnote">[106]</sup></a> The
1977 textbook publisher OpenStax, which distributes all of its material for free
1978 under CC licensing, is an example of this dynamic. Rather than tapping the
1979 community to help cocreate their college textbooks, they invest a
1980 significant amount of time and money to develop professional content. For
1981 individual creators, where the creative work is the basis for what they do,
1982 community cocreation is only rarely a part of the picture. Even musician
1983 Amanda Palmer, who is famous for her openness and involvement with her fans,
1984 said,</span>”</span>The only department where I wasn’t open to input was the
1985 writing, the music itself."<a href="#ftn.idm778" class="footnote" name="idm778"><sup class="footnote">[107]</sup></a>
1986         </p><p>
1987           While we tend to immediately think of cocreation and remixing when we hear
1988 the word collaboration, you can also involve others in your creative process
1989 in more informal ways, by sharing half-baked ideas and early drafts, and
1990 interacting with the public to incubate ideas and get feedback. So-called
1991 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">making in public</span>”</span> opens the door to letting people feel more
1992 invested in your creative work.<a href="#ftn.idm782" class="footnote" name="idm782"><sup class="footnote">[108]</sup></a> And it
1993 shows a nonterritorial approach to ideas and information. Stephen Covey (of
1994 The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People fame) calls this the abundance
1995 mentality—treating ideas like something plentiful—and it can create an
1996 environment where collaboration flourishes.<a href="#ftn.idm784" class="footnote" name="idm784"><sup class="footnote">[109]</sup></a>
1997         </p><p>
1998           There is no one way to involve people in what you do. They key is finding a
1999 way for people to contribute on their terms, compelled by their own
2000 motivations.<a href="#ftn.idm787" class="footnote" name="idm787"><sup class="footnote">[110]</sup></a> What that looks like
2001 varies wildly depending on the project. Not every endeavor that is Made with
2002 Creative Commons can be Wikipedia, but every endeavor can find ways to
2003 invite the public into what they do. The goal for any form of collaboration
2004 is to move away from thinking of consumers as passive recipients of your
2005 content and transition them into active participants.<a href="#ftn.idm789" class="footnote" name="idm789"><sup class="footnote">[111]</sup></a>
2006         </p></div></div><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm396" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm396" class="para"><sup class="para">[37] </sup></a>
2007           Alex Osterwalder and Yves Pigneur, Business Model Generation (Hoboken, NJ:
2008 John Wiley and Sons, 2010), 14. A preview of the book is available at <a class="ulink" href="http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation" target="_top">http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation</a>.
2009         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm410" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm410" class="para"><sup class="para">[38] </sup></a>
2010           Cory Doctorow, Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free: Laws for the Internet
2011 Age (San Francisco, CA: McSweeney’s, 2014) 68.
2012         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm419" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm419" class="para"><sup class="para">[39] </sup></a>
2013           Ibid., 55.
2014         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm422" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm422" class="para"><sup class="para">[40] </sup></a>
2015           Chris Anderson, Free: How Today’s Smartest Businesses Profit by Giving
2016 Something for Nothing, reprint with new preface (New York: Hyperion, 2010),
2017 224.
2018         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm426" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm426" class="para"><sup class="para">[41] </sup></a>
2019           Doctorow, Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, 44.
2020         </p></div><div id="ftn.idm438" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm438" class="para"><sup class="para">[42] </sup></a>
2021             Amanda Palmer, The Art of Asking: Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Let
2022 People Help (New York: Grand Central, 2014), 121.
2023           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm442" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm442" class="para"><sup class="para">[43] </sup></a>
2024             Chris Anderson, Makers: The New Industrial Revolution (New York: Signal,
2025 2012), 64.
2026           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm446" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm446" class="para"><sup class="para">[44] </sup></a>
2027             David Bollier, Think Like a Commoner: A Short Introduction to the Life of
2028 the Commons (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society, 2014), 70.
2029           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm449" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm449" class="para"><sup class="para">[45] </sup></a>
2030             Anderson, Makers, 66.
2031           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm452" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm452" class="para"><sup class="para">[46] </sup></a>
2032             Bryan Kramer, Shareology: How Sharing Is Powering the Human Economy (New
2033 York: Morgan James, 2016), 10.
2034           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm455" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm455" class="para"><sup class="para">[47] </sup></a>
2035             Anderson, Free, 62.
2036           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm460" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm460" class="para"><sup class="para">[48] </sup></a>
2037             Doctorow, Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, 38.
2038           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm465" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm465" class="para"><sup class="para">[49] </sup></a>
2039             Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 68.
2040           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm471" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm471" class="para"><sup class="para">[50] </sup></a>
2041             Anderson, Free, 86.
2042           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm475" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm475" class="para"><sup class="para">[51] </sup></a>
2043             Doctorow, Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, 144.
2044           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm485" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm485" class="para"><sup class="para">[52] </sup></a>
2045               Anderson, Free, 123.
2046             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm488" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm488" class="para"><sup class="para">[53] </sup></a>
2047               Ibid., 132.
2048             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm490" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm490" class="para"><sup class="para">[54] </sup></a>
2049               Ibid., 70.
2050             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm495" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm495" class="para"><sup class="para">[55] </sup></a>
2051               James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor Books, 2005),
2052 124. Surowiecki says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The measure of success of laws and contracts is
2053 how rarely they are invoked.</span>”</span>
2054             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm505" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm505" class="para"><sup class="para">[56] </sup></a>
2055               Anderson, Free, 44.
2056             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm512" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm512" class="para"><sup class="para">[57] </sup></a>
2057               Osterwalder and Pigneur, Business Model Generation, 23.
2058             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm516" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm516" class="para"><sup class="para">[58] </sup></a>
2059               Anderson, Free, 67.
2060             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm518" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm518" class="para"><sup class="para">[59] </sup></a>
2061               Ibid., 58.
2062             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm520" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm520" class="para"><sup class="para">[60] </sup></a>
2063               Anderson, Makers, 71.
2064             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm522" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm522" class="para"><sup class="para">[61] </sup></a>
2065               Clay Shirky, Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers into
2066 Collaborators (London: Penguin Books, 2010), 78.
2067             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm526" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm526" class="para"><sup class="para">[62] </sup></a>
2068               Ibid., 21.
2069             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm531" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm531" class="para"><sup class="para">[63] </sup></a>
2070               Doctorow, Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, 43.
2071             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm538" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm538" class="para"><sup class="para">[64] </sup></a>
2072             William Landes Foster, Peter Kim, and Barbara Christiansen, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Ten
2073 Nonprofit Funding Models,</span>”</span> Stanford Social Innovation Review, Spring
2074 2009, <a class="ulink" href="http://ssir.org/articles/entry/ten_nonprofit_funding_models" target="_top">http://ssir.org/articles/entry/ten_nonprofit_funding_models</a>.
2075           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm544" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm544" class="para"><sup class="para">[65] </sup></a>
2076             Shirky, Cognitive Surplus, 111.
2077           </p></div><div id="ftn.idm550" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm550" class="para"><sup class="para">[66] </sup></a>
2078               Osterwalder and Pigneur, Business Model Generation, 30.
2079             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm552" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm552" class="para"><sup class="para">[67] </sup></a>
2080               Jim Whitehurst, The Open Organization: Igniting Passion and Performance
2081 (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2015), 202.
2082             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm555" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm555" class="para"><sup class="para">[68] </sup></a>
2083               Anderson, Free, 71.
2084             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm561" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm561" class="para"><sup class="para">[69] </sup></a>
2085               Ibid., 231.
2086             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm571" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm571" class="para"><sup class="para">[70] </sup></a>
2087               Ibid., 97.
2088             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm578" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm578" class="para"><sup class="para">[71] </sup></a>
2089               Anderson, Makers, 107.
2090             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm589" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm589" class="para"><sup class="para">[72] </sup></a>
2091               Osterwalder and Pigneur, Business Model Generation, 89.
2092             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm595" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm595" class="para"><sup class="para">[73] </sup></a>
2093               Ibid., 92.
2094             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm597" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm597" class="para"><sup class="para">[74] </sup></a>
2095               Anderson, Free, 142.
2096             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm608" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm608" class="para"><sup class="para">[75] </sup></a>
2097               Osterwalder and Pigneur, Business Model Generation, 32.
2098             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm626" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm626" class="para"><sup class="para">[76] </sup></a>
2099               Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 150.
2100             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm628" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm628" class="para"><sup class="para">[77] </sup></a>
2101               Ibid., 134.
2102             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm661" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm661" class="para"><sup class="para">[78] </sup></a>
2103               Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our
2104 Decisions, rev. ed. (New York: Harper Perennial, 2010), 109.
2105             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm665" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm665" class="para"><sup class="para">[79] </sup></a>
2106               Austin Kleon, Show Your Work: 10 Ways to Share Your Creativity and Get
2107 Discovered (New York: Workman, 2014), 93.
2108             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm672" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm672" class="para"><sup class="para">[80] </sup></a>
2109               Kramer, Shareology, 76.
2110             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm679" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm679" class="para"><sup class="para">[81] </sup></a>
2111               Palmer, Art of Asking, 252.
2112             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm681" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm681" class="para"><sup class="para">[82] </sup></a>
2113               Whitehurst, Open Organization, 145.
2114             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm684" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm684" class="para"><sup class="para">[83] </sup></a>
2115               Surowiecki, Wisdom of Crowds, 203.
2116             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm686" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm686" class="para"><sup class="para">[84] </sup></a>
2117               Whitehurst, Open Organization, 80.
2118             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm691" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm691" class="para"><sup class="para">[85] </sup></a>
2119               Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 25.
2120             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm693" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm693" class="para"><sup class="para">[86] </sup></a>
2121               Ibid., 31.
2122             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm699" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm699" class="para"><sup class="para">[87] </sup></a>
2123               Shirky, Cognitive Surplus, 112.
2124             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm703" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm703" class="para"><sup class="para">[88] </sup></a>
2125               Surowiecki, Wisdom of Crowds, 124.
2126             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm709" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm709" class="para"><sup class="para">[89] </sup></a>
2127               Kleon, Show Your Work, 127.
2128             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm711" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm711" class="para"><sup class="para">[90] </sup></a>
2129               Palmer, Art of Asking, 121.
2130             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm715" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm715" class="para"><sup class="para">[91] </sup></a>
2131               Ariely, Predictably Irrational, 87.
2132             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm717" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm717" class="para"><sup class="para">[92] </sup></a>
2133               Ibid., 105.
2134             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm724" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm724" class="para"><sup class="para">[93] </sup></a>
2135               Ibid., 36.
2136             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm729" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm729" class="para"><sup class="para">[94] </sup></a>
2137               Jono Bacon, The Art of Community, 2nd ed. (Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media,
2138 2012), 36.
2139             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm734" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm734" class="para"><sup class="para">[95] </sup></a>
2140               Palmer, Art of Asking, 98.
2141             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm737" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm737" class="para"><sup class="para">[96] </sup></a>
2142               Whitehurst, Open Organization, 34.
2143             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm741" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm741" class="para"><sup class="para">[97] </sup></a>
2144               Surowiecki, Wisdom of Crowds, 200.
2145             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm743" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm743" class="para"><sup class="para">[98] </sup></a>
2146               Bollier, Think Like a Commoner, 29.
2147             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm750" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm750" class="para"><sup class="para">[99] </sup></a>
2148               Giana Eckhardt and Fleura Bardhi, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Sharing Economy Isn’t about
2149 Sharing at All,</span>”</span> Harvard Business Review (website), January 28, 2015,
2150 <a class="ulink" href="http://hbr.org/2015/01/the-sharing-economy-isnt-about-sharing-at-all" target="_top">http://hbr.org/2015/01/the-sharing-economy-isnt-about-sharing-at-all</a>.
2151             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm754" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm754" class="para"><sup class="para">[100] </sup></a>
2152               Lisa Gansky, The Mesh: Why the Future of Business Is Sharing, reprint with
2153 new epilogue (New York: Portfolio, 2012).
2154             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm757" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm757" class="para"><sup class="para">[101] </sup></a>
2155               David Lee, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Inside Medium: An Attempt to Bring Civility to the
2156 Internet,</span>”</span> BBC News, March 3, 2016, <a class="ulink" href="http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35709680" target="_top">http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35709680</a>.
2157             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm765" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm765" class="para"><sup class="para">[102] </sup></a>
2158               Anderson, Makers, 148.
2159             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm767" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm767" class="para"><sup class="para">[103] </sup></a>
2160               Shirky, Cognitive Surplus, 164.
2161             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm769" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm769" class="para"><sup class="para">[104] </sup></a>
2162               Whitehurst, foreword to Open Organization.
2163             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm772" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm772" class="para"><sup class="para">[105] </sup></a>
2164               Shirky, Cognitive Surplus, 144.
2165             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm776" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm776" class="para"><sup class="para">[106] </sup></a>
2166               Ibid., 154.
2167             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm778" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm778" class="para"><sup class="para">[107] </sup></a>
2168               Palmer, Art of Asking, 163.
2169             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm782" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm782" class="para"><sup class="para">[108] </sup></a>
2170               Anderson, Makers, 173.
2171             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm784" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm784" class="para"><sup class="para">[109] </sup></a>
2172               Tom Kelley and David Kelley, Creative Confidence: Unleashing the Potential
2173 within Us All (New York: Crown, 2013), 82.
2174             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm787" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm787" class="para"><sup class="para">[110] </sup></a>
2175               Whitehurst, foreword to Open Organization.
2176             </p></div><div id="ftn.idm789" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm789" class="para"><sup class="para">[111] </sup></a>
2177               Rachel Botsman and Roo Rogers, What’s Mine Is Yours: The Rise of
2178 Collaborative Consumption (New York: Harper Business, 2010), 188.
2179             </p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="the-creative-commons-licenses"></a>第 3 章 The Creative Commons Licenses</h2></div></div></div><p>
2180       All of the Creative Commons licenses grant a basic set of permissions. At a
2181 minimum, a CC- licensed work can be copied and shared in its original form
2182 for noncommercial purposes so long as attribution is given to the
2183 creator. There are six licenses in the CC license suite that build on that
2184 basic set of permissions, ranging from the most restrictive (allowing only
2185 those basic permissions to share unmodified copies for noncommercial
2186 purposes)  to the most permissive (reusers can do anything they want with
2187 the work, even for commercial purposes, as long as they give the creator
2188 credit). The licenses are built on copyright and do not cover other types of
2189 rights that creators might have in their works, like patents or trademarks.
2190     </p><p>
2191       Here are the six licenses:
2192     </p><p>
2193         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008D83BF99FC0821C489.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2194       </p><p>
2195       The Attribution license (CC BY) lets others distribute, remix, tweak, and
2196 build upon your work, even commercially, as long as they credit you for the
2197 original creation. This is the most accommodating of licenses
2198 offered. Recommended for maximum dissemination and use of licensed
2199 materials.
2200     </p><p>
2201         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008DFD3592CB17C4EC38.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2202       </p><p>
2203       The Attribution-Share-Alike license (CC BY-SA) lets others remix, tweak, and
2204 build upon your work, even for commercial purposes, as long as they credit
2205 you and license their new creations under identical terms. This license is
2206 often compared to <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">copyleft</span>”</span> free and open source software
2207 licenses.  All new works based on yours will carry the same license, so any
2208 derivatives will also allow commercial use.
2209     </p><p>
2210         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008D254882DE24793FEA.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2211       </p><p>
2212       The Attribution-NoDerivs license (CC BY-ND) allows for redistribution,
2213 commercial and noncommercial, as long as it is passed along unchanged with
2214 credit to you.
2215     </p><p>
2216         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008DCAF78FB61D1CBDA6.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2217       </p><p>
2218       The Attribution-NonCommercial license (CC BY-NC) lets others remix, tweak,
2219 and build upon your work noncommercially. Although their new works must also
2220 acknowledge you, they don’t have to license their derivative works on the
2221 same terms.
2222     </p><p>
2223         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008D16DA603376395620.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2224       </p><p>
2225       The Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license (CC BY-NC-SA)  lets others
2226 remix, tweak, and build upon your work noncommercially, as long as they
2227 credit you and license their new creations under the same terms.
2228     </p><p>
2229         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001930000008DC3FEF92B21310965.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2230       </p><p>
2231       The Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license (CC BY-NC-ND) is the most
2232 restrictive of our six main licenses, only allowing others to download your
2233 works and share them with others as long as they credit you, but they can’t
2234 change them or use them commercially.
2235     </p><p>
2236       In addition to these six licenses, Creative Commons has two public-domain
2237 tools—one for creators and the other for those who manage collections of
2238 existing works by authors whose terms of copyright have expired:
2239     </p><p>
2240         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001900000008DBE3414994CD27786.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2241       </p><p>
2242       CC0 enables authors and copyright owners to dedicate their works to the
2243 worldwide public domain (<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">no rights reserved</span>”</span>).
2244     </p><p>
2245         <span class="inlinemediaobject"><img src="Pictures/10000201000001900000008D36DCD649C5B1411F.png" width="40.0%"></span>
2246       </p><p>
2247       The Creative Commons Public Domain Mark facilitates the labeling and
2248 discovery of works that are already free of known copyright restrictions.
2249     </p><p>
2250       In our case studies, some use just one Creative Commons license, others use
2251 several. Attribution (found in thirteen case studies)  and
2252 Attribution-ShareAlike (found in eight studies) were the most common, with
2253 the other licenses coming up in four or so case studies, including the
2254 public-domain tool CC0. Some of the organizations we profiled offer both
2255 digital content and software: by using open-source-software licenses for the
2256 software code and Creative Commons licenses for digital content, they
2257 amplify their involvement with and commitment to sharing.
2258     </p><p>
2259       There is a popular misconception that the three NonCommercial licenses
2260 offered by CC are the only options for those who want to make money off
2261 their work. As we hope this book makes clear, there are many ways to make
2262 endeavors that are Made with Creative Commons sustainable. Reserving
2263 commercial rights is only one of those ways. It is certainly true that a
2264 license that allows others to make commercial use of your work (CC BY, CC
2265 BY-SA, and CC BY-ND) forecloses some traditional revenue streams. If you
2266 apply an Attribution (CC BY) license to your book, you can’t force a film
2267 company to pay you royalties if they turn your book into a feature-length
2268 film, or prevent another company from selling physical copies of your work.
2269     </p><p>
2270       The decision to choose a NonCommercial and/or NoDerivs license comes down to
2271 how much you need to retain control over the creative work. The
2272 NonCommercial and NoDerivs licenses are ways of reserving some significant
2273 portion of the exclusive bundle of rights that copyright grants to
2274 creators. In some cases, reserving those rights is important to how you
2275 bring in revenue. In other cases, creators use a NonCommercial or NoDerivs
2276 license because they can’t give up on the dream of hitting the creative
2277 jackpot.  The music platform Tribe of Noise told us the NonCommercial
2278 licenses were popular among their users because people still held out the
2279 dream of having a major record label discover their work.
2280     </p><p>
2281       Other times the decision to use a more restrictive license is due to a
2282 concern about the integrity of the work. For example, the nonprofit
2283 TeachAIDS uses a NoDerivs license for its educational materials because the
2284 medical subject matter is particularly important to get right.
2285     </p><p>
2286       There is no one right way. The NonCommercial and NoDerivs restrictions
2287 reflect the values and preferences of creators about how their creative work
2288 should be reused, just as the ShareAlike license reflects a different set of
2289 values, one that is less about controlling access to their own work and more
2290 about ensuring that whatever gets created with their work is available to
2291 all on the same terms. Since the beginning of the commons, people have been
2292 setting up structures that helped regulate the way in which shared resources
2293 were used. The CC licenses are an attempt to standardize norms across all
2294 domains.
2295     </p><p>
2296       Note
2297     </p><p>
2298       For more about the licenses including examples and tips on sharing your work
2299 in the digital commons, start with the Creative Commons page called
2300 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Share Your Work</span>”</span> at <a class="ulink" href="http://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/" target="_top">http://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/</a>.
2301     </p></div></div><div class="part"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h1 class="title"><a name="the-case-studies"></a>部分 II. The Case Studies</h1></div></div></div><div class="partintro"><div></div><p>
2302     The twenty-four case studies in this section were chosen from hundreds of
2303 nominations received from Kickstarter backers, Creative Commons staff, and
2304 the global Creative Commons community. We selected eighty potential
2305 candidates that represented a mix of industries, content types, revenue
2306 streams, and parts of the world.  Twelve of the case studies were selected
2307 from that group based on votes cast by Kickstarter backers, and the other
2308 twelve were selected by us.
2309   </p><p>
2310     We did background research and conducted interviews for each case study,
2311 based on the same set of basic questions about the endeavor.  The idea for
2312 each case study is to tell the story about the endeavor and the role sharing
2313 plays within it, largely the way in which it was told to us by those we
2314 interviewed.
2315   </p><div class="toc"><p><b>目录</b></p><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#arduino">4. Arduino</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#artica">5. Ártica</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#blender-institute">6. Blender Institute</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#cards-against-humanity">7. Cards Against Humanity</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#the-conversation">8. The Conversation</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#cory-doctorow">9. Cory Doctorow</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#figshare">10. Figshare</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#figure.nz">11. Figure.NZ</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#knowledge-unlatched">12. Knowledge Unlatched</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#lumen-learning">13. Lumen Learning</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#jonathan-mann">14. Jonathan Mann</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#noun-project">15. Noun Project</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#open-data-institute">16. Open Data Institute</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#opendesk">17. OpenDesk</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#openstax">18. OpenStax</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#amanda-palmer">19. Amanda Palmer</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#plos-public-library-of-science">20. PLOS (Public Library of Science)</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#rijksmuseum">21. Rijksmuseum</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#shareable">22. Shareable</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#siyavula">23. Siyavula</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#sparkfun">24. SparkFun</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#teachaids">25. TeachAIDS</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#tribe-of-noise">26. Tribe of Noise</a></span></dt><dt><span class="chapter"><a href="#wikimedia-foundation">27. Wikimedia Foundation</a></span></dt></dl></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="arduino"></a>第 4 章 Arduino</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
2316         Arduino is a for-profit open-source electronics platform and computer
2317 hardware and software company. Founded in 2005 in Italy.
2318       </p><p>
2319           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.arduino.cc" target="_top">http://www.arduino.cc</a>
2320         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for physical
2321 copies (sales of boards, modules, shields, and kits), licensing a trademark
2322 (fees paid by those who want to sell Arduino products using their name)
2323       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 4, 2016
2324       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: David Cuartielles and Tom
2325 Igoe, cofounders
2326       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
2327     \textit{
2328         Profile written by Paul Stacey
2329       }
2330     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
2331       In 2005, at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in northern Italy,
2332 teachers and students needed an easy way to use electronics and programming
2333 to quickly prototype design ideas. As musicians, artists, and designers,
2334 they needed a platform that didn’t require engineering expertise. A group of
2335 teachers and students, including Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe,
2336 Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis, built a platform that combined different
2337 open technologies. They called it Arduino. The platform integrated software,
2338 hardware, microcontrollers, and electronics. All aspects of the platform
2339 were openly licensed: hardware designs and documentation with the
2340 Attribution-Share-Alike license (CC BY-SA), and software with the GNU
2341 General Public License.
2342     </p><p>
2343       Arduino boards are able to read inputs—light on a sensor, a finger on a
2344 button, or a Twitter message—and turn it into outputs—activating a motor,
2345 turning on an LED, publishing something online. You send a set of
2346 instructions to the microcontroller on the board by using the Arduino
2347 programming language and Arduino software (based on a piece of open-source
2348 software called Processing, a programming tool used to make visual art).
2349     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The reasons for making Arduino open source are complicated,</span>”</span>
2350 Tom says. Partly it was about supporting flexibility. The open-source nature
2351 of Arduino empowers users to modify it and create a lot of different
2352 variations, adding on top of what the founders build. David says this
2353 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">ended up strengthening the platform far beyond what we had even
2354 thought of building.</span>”</span>
2355     </p><p>
2356       For Tom another factor was the impending closure of the Ivrea design
2357 school. He’d seen other organizations close their doors and all their work
2358 and research just disappear. Open-sourcing ensured that Arduino would
2359 outlive the Ivrea closure. Persistence is one thing Tom really likes about
2360 open source. If key people leave, or a company shuts down, an open-source
2361 product lives on. In Tom’s view, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Open sourcing makes it easier to
2362 trust a product.</span>”</span>
2363     </p><p>
2364       With the school closing, David and some of the other Arduino founders
2365 started a consulting firm and multidisciplinary design studio they called
2366 Tinker, in London. Tinker designed products and services that bridged the
2367 digital and the physical, and they taught people how to use new technologies
2368 in creative ways.  Revenue from Tinker was invested in sustaining and
2369 enhancing Arduino.
2370     </p><p>
2371       For Tom, part of Arduino’s success is because the founders made themselves
2372 the first customer of their product. They made products they themselves
2373 personally wanted. It was a matter of <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I need this thing,</span>”</span> not
2374 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If we make this, we’ll make a lot of money.</span>”</span> Tom notes that
2375 being your own first customer makes you more confident and convincing at
2376 selling your product.
2377     </p><p>
2378       Arduino’s business model has evolved over time—and Tom says model is a
2379 grandiose term for it. Originally, they just wanted to make a few boards and
2380 get them out into the world. They started out with two hundred boards, sold
2381 them, and made a little profit. They used that to make another thousand,
2382 which generated enough revenue to make five thousand. In the early days,
2383 they simply tried to generate enough funding to keep the venture going day
2384 to day. When they hit the ten thousand mark, they started to think about
2385 Arduino as a company. By then it was clear you can open-source the design
2386 but still manufacture the physical product. As long as it’s a quality
2387 product and sold at a reasonable price, people will buy it.
2388     </p><p>
2389       Arduino now has a worldwide community of makers—students, hobbyists,
2390 artists, programmers, and professionals. Arduino provides a wiki called
2391 Playground (a wiki is where all users can edit and add pages, contributing
2392 to and benefiting from collective research). People share code, circuit
2393 diagrams, tutorials, DIY instructions, and tips and tricks, and show off
2394 their projects. In addition, there’s a multilanguage discussion forum where
2395 users can get help using Arduino, discuss topics like robotics, and make
2396 suggestions for new Arduino product designs. As of January 2017, 324,928
2397 members had made 2,989,489 posts on 379,044 topics. The worldwide community
2398 of makers has contributed an incredible amount of accessible knowledge
2399 helpful to novices and experts alike.
2400     </p><p>
2401       Transitioning Arduino from a project to a company was a big step.  Other
2402 businesses who made boards were charging a lot of money for them. Arduino
2403 wanted to make theirs available at a low price to people across a wide range
2404 of industries. As with any business, pricing was key. They wanted prices
2405 that would get lots of customers but were also high enough to sustain the
2406 business.
2407     </p><p>
2408       For a business, getting to the end of the year and not being in the red is a
2409 success. Arduino may have an open-licensing strategy, but they are still a
2410 business, and all the things needed to successfully run one still
2411 apply. David says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If you do those other things well, sharing things
2412 in an open-source way can only help you.</span>”</span>
2413     </p><p>
2414       While openly licensing the designs, documentation, and software ensures
2415 longevity, it does have risks. There’s a possibility that others will create
2416 knockoffs, clones, and copies. The CC BY-SA license means anyone can produce
2417 copies of their boards, redesign them, and even sell boards that copy the
2418 design. They don’t have to pay a license fee to Arduino or even ask
2419 permission. However, if they republish the design of the board, they have to
2420 give attribution to Arduino. If they change the design, they must release
2421 the new design using the same Creative Commons license to ensure that the
2422 new version is equally free and open.
2423     </p><p>
2424       Tom and David say that a lot of people have built companies off of Arduino,
2425 with dozens of Arduino derivatives out there. But in contrast to closed
2426 business models that can wring money out of the system over many years
2427 because there is no competition, Arduino founders saw competition as keeping
2428 them honest, and aimed for an environment of collaboration. A benefit of
2429 open over closed is the many new ideas and designs others have contributed
2430 back to the Arduino ecosystem, ideas and designs that Arduino and the
2431 Arduino community use and incorporate into new products.
2432     </p><p>
2433       Over time, the range of Arduino products has diversified, changing and
2434 adapting to new needs and challenges. In addition to simple entry level
2435 boards, new products have been added ranging from enhanced boards that
2436 provide advanced functionality and faster performance, to boards for
2437 creating Internet of Things applications, wearables, and 3-D printing. The
2438 full range of official Arduino products includes boards, modules (a smaller
2439 form-factor of classic boards), shields (elements that can be plugged onto a
2440 board to give it extra features), and kits.<a href="#ftn.idm884" class="footnote" name="idm884"><sup class="footnote">[112]</sup></a>
2441     </p><p>
2442       Arduino’s focus is on high-quality boards, well-designed support materials,
2443 and the building of community; this focus is one of the keys to their
2444 success. And being open lets you build a real community. David says
2445 Arduino’s community is a big strength and something that really does
2446 matter—in his words, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s good business.</span>”</span> When they started,
2447 the Arduino team had almost entirely no idea how to build a community. They
2448 started by conducting numerous workshops, working directly with people using
2449 the platform to make sure the hardware and software worked the way it was
2450 meant to work and solved people’s problems. The community grew organically
2451 from there.
2452     </p><p>
2453       A key decision for Arduino was trademarking the name. The founders needed a
2454 way to guarantee to people that they were buying a quality product from a
2455 company committed to open-source values and knowledge sharing. Trademarking
2456 the Arduino name and logo expresses that guarantee and helps customers
2457 easily identify their products, and the products sanctioned by them. If
2458 others want to sell boards using the Arduino name and logo, they have to pay
2459 a small fee to Arduino. This allows Arduino to scale up manufacturing and
2460 distribution while at the same time ensuring the Arduino brand isn’t hurt by
2461 low-quality copies.
2462     </p><p>
2463       Current official manufacturers are Smart Projects in Italy, SparkFun in the
2464 United States, and Dog Hunter in Taiwan/China.  These are the only
2465 manufacturers that are allowed to use the Arduino logo on their
2466 boards. Trademarking their brand provided the founders with a way to protect
2467 Arduino, build it out further, and fund software and tutorial
2468 development. The trademark-licensing fee for the brand became Arduino’s
2469 revenue-generating model.
2470     </p><p>
2471       How far to open things up wasn’t always something the founders perfectly
2472 agreed on. David, who was always one to advocate for opening things up more,
2473 had some fears about protecting the Arduino name, thinking people would be
2474 mad if they policed their brand. There was some early backlash with a
2475 project called Freeduino, but overall, trademarking and branding has been a
2476 critical tool for Arduino.
2477     </p><p>
2478       David encourages people and businesses to start by sharing everything as a
2479 default strategy, and then think about whether there is anything that really
2480 needs to be protected and why. There are lots of good reasons to not open up
2481 certain elements. This strategy of sharing everything is certainly the
2482 complete opposite of how today’s world operates, where nothing is
2483 shared. Tom suggests a business formalize which elements are based on open
2484 sharing and which are closed. An Arduino blog post from 2013 entitled
2485 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Send In the Clones,</span>”</span> by one of the founders Massimo Banzi,
2486 does a great job of explaining the full complexities of how trademarking
2487 their brand has played out, distinguishing between official boards and those
2488 that are clones, derivatives, compatibles, and counterfeits.<a href="#ftn.idm894" class="footnote" name="idm894"><sup class="footnote">[113]</sup></a>
2489     </p><p>
2490       For David, an exciting aspect of Arduino is the way lots of people can use
2491 it to adapt technology in many different ways. Technology is always making
2492 more things possible but doesn’t always focus on making it easy to use and
2493 adapt. This is where Arduino steps in.  Arduino’s goal is <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">making
2494 things that help other people make things.</span>”</span>
2495     </p><p>
2496       Arduino has been hugely successful in making technology and electronics
2497 reach a larger audience. For Tom, Arduino has been about <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">the
2498 democratization of technology.</span>”</span> Tom sees Arduino’s open-source
2499 strategy as helping the world get over the idea that technology has to be
2500 protected. Tom says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Technology is a literacy everyone should
2501 learn.</span>”</span>
2502     </p><p>
2503       Ultimately, for Arduino, going open has been good business—good for product
2504 development, good for distribution, good for pricing, and good for
2505 manufacturing.
2506     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm884" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm884" class="para"><sup class="para">[112] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Products" target="_top">http://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Products</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm894" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm894" class="para"><sup class="para">[113] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://blog.arduino.cc/2013/07/10/send-in-the-clones/" target="_top">http://blog.arduino.cc/2013/07/10/send-in-the-clones/</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="artica"></a>第 5 章 Ártica</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
2507         Ártica provides online courses and consulting services focused on how to use
2508 digital technology to share knowledge and enable collaboration in arts and
2509 culture. Founded in 2011 in Uruguay.
2510       </p><p>
2511           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.articaonline.com" target="_top">http://www.articaonline.com</a>
2512         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for custom
2513 services
2514       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: March 9, 2016
2515       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: Mariana Fossatti and Jorge
2516 Gemetto, cofounders
2517       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
2518     \textit{
2519         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
2520       }
2521     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
2522       The story of Mariana Fossatti and Jorge Gemetto’s business, Ártica, is the
2523 ultimate example of DIY. Not only are they successful entrepreneurs, the
2524 niche in which their small business operates is essentially one they built
2525 themselves.
2526     </p><p>
2527       Their dream jobs didn’t exist, so they created them.
2528     </p><p>
2529       In 2011, Mariana was a sociologist working for an international organization
2530 to develop research and online education about rural-development
2531 issues. Jorge was a psychologist, also working in online education. Both
2532 were bloggers and heavy users of social media, and both had a passion for
2533 arts and culture. They decided to take their skills in digital technology
2534 and online learning and apply them to a topic area they loved. They launched
2535 Ártica, an online business that provides education and consulting for people
2536 and institutions creating artistic and cultural projects on the Internet.
2537     </p><p>
2538       Ártica feels like a uniquely twenty-first century business. The small
2539 company has a global online presence with no physical offices. Jorge and
2540 Mariana live in Uruguay, and the other two full-time employees, who Jorge
2541 and Mariana have never actually met in person, live in Spain. They started
2542 by creating a MOOC (massive open online course) about remix culture and
2543 collaboration in the arts, which gave them a direct way to reach an
2544 international audience, attracting students from across Latin America and
2545 Spain.  In other words, it is the classic Internet story of being able to
2546 directly tap into an audience without relying upon gatekeepers or
2547 intermediaries.
2548     </p><p>
2549       Ártica offers personalized education and consulting services, and helps
2550 clients implement projects. All of these services are customized. They call
2551 it an <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">artisan</span>”</span> process because of the time and effort it takes
2552 to adapt their work for the particular needs of students and
2553 clients. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Each student or client is paying for a specific solution to
2554 his or her problems and questions,</span>”</span> Mariana said. Rather than sell
2555 access to their content, they provide it for free and charge for the
2556 personalized services.
2557     </p><p>
2558       When they started, they offered a smaller number of courses designed to
2559 attract large audiences. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Over the years, we realized that online
2560 communities are more specific than we thought,</span>”</span> Mariana said. Ártica
2561 now provides more options for classes and has lower enrollment in each
2562 course. This means they can provide more attention to individual students
2563 and offer classes on more specialized topics.
2564     </p><p>
2565       Online courses are their biggest revenue stream, but they also do more than
2566 a dozen consulting projects each year, ranging from digitization to event
2567 planning to marketing campaigns. Some are significant in scope, particularly
2568 when they work with cultural institutions, and some are smaller projects
2569 commissioned by individual artists.
2570     </p><p>
2571       Ártica also seeks out public and private funding for specific
2572 projects. Sometimes, even if they are unsuccessful in subsidizing a project
2573 like a new course or e-book, they will go ahead because they believe in
2574 it. They take the stance that every new project leads them to something new,
2575 every new resource they create opens new doors.
2576     </p><p>
2577       Ártica relies heavily on their free Creative Commons–licensed content to
2578 attract new students and clients. Everything they create—online education,
2579 blog posts, videos—is published under an Attribution-ShareAlike license (CC
2580 BY-SA). <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We use a ShareAlike license because we want to give the
2581 greatest freedom to our students and readers, and we also want that freedom
2582 to be viral,</span>”</span> Jorge said. For them, giving others the right to reuse
2583 and remix their content is a fundamental value. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">How can you offer an
2584 online educational service without giving permission to download, make and
2585 keep copies, or print the educational resources?</span>”</span> Jorge
2586 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If we want to do the best for our students—those who trust in
2587 us to the point that they are willing to pay online without face-to-face
2588 contact—we have to offer them a fair and ethical agreement.</span>”</span>
2589     </p><p>
2590       They also believe sharing their ideas and expertise openly helps them build
2591 their reputation and visibility. People often share and cite their work. A
2592 few years ago, a publisher even picked up one of their e-books and
2593 distributed printed copies. Ártica views reuse of their work as a way to
2594 open up new opportunities for their business.
2595     </p><p>
2596       This belief that openness creates new opportunities reflects another
2597 belief—in serendipity. When describing their process for creating content,
2598 they spoke of all of the spontaneous and organic ways they find
2599 inspiration. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Sometimes, the collaborative process starts with a
2600 conversation between us, or with friends from other projects,</span>”</span> Jorge
2601 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">That can be the first step for a new blog post or another
2602 simple piece of content, which can evolve to a more complex product in the
2603 future, like a course or a book.</span>”</span>
2604     </p><p>
2605       Rather than planning their work in advance, they let their creative process
2606 be dynamic. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">This doesn’t mean that we don’t need to work hard in
2607 order to get good professional results, but the design process is more
2608 flexible,</span>”</span> Jorge said. They share early and often, and they adjust
2609 based on what they learn, always exploring and testing new ideas and ways of
2610 operating. In many ways, for them, the process is just as important as the
2611 final product.
2612     </p><p>
2613       People and relationships are also just as important, sometimes
2614 more. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">In the educational and cultural business, it is more important
2615 to pay attention to people and process, rather than content or specific
2616 formats or materials,</span>”</span> Mariana said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Materials and content
2617 are fluid. The important thing is the relationships.</span>”</span>
2618     </p><p>
2619       Ártica believes in the power of the network. They seek to make connections
2620 with people and institutions across the globe so they can learn from them
2621 and share their knowledge.
2622     </p><p>
2623       At the core of everything Ártica does is a set of values.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Good
2624 content is not enough,</span>”</span> Jorge said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We also think that it is
2625 very important to take a stand for some things in the cultural
2626 sector.</span>”</span> Mariana and Jorge are activists. They defend free culture
2627 (the movement promoting the freedom to modify and distribute creative work)
2628 and work to demonstrate the intersection between free culture and other
2629 social-justice movements. Their efforts to involve people in their work and
2630 enable artists and cultural institutions to better use technology are all
2631 tied closely to their belief system.  Ultimately, what drives their work is
2632 a mission to democratize art and culture.
2633     </p><p>
2634       Of course, Ártica also has to make enough money to cover its expenses. Human
2635 resources are, by far, their biggest expense. They tap a network of
2636 collaborators on a case-by-case basis and hire contractors for specific
2637 projects. Whenever possible, they draw from artistic and cultural resources
2638 in the commons, and they rely on free software. Their operation is small,
2639 efficient, and sustainable, and because of that, it is a success.
2640     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There are lots of people offering online courses,</span>”</span> Jorge
2641 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">But it is easy to differentiate us. We have an approach that is
2642 very specific and personal.</span>”</span> Ártica’s model is rooted in the personal
2643 at every level. For Mariana and Jorge, success means doing what brings them
2644 personal meaning and purpose, and doing it sustainably and collaboratively.
2645     </p><p>
2646       In their work with younger artists, Mariana and Jorge try to emphasize that
2647 this model of success is just as valuable as the picture of success we get
2648 from the media. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If they seek only the traditional type of success,
2649 they will get frustrated,</span>”</span> Mariana said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We try to show them
2650 another image of what it looks like.</span>”</span>
2651     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="blender-institute"></a>第 6 章 Blender Institute</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
2652         The Blender Institute is an animation studio that creates 3-D films using
2653 Blender software. Founded in 2006 in the Netherlands.
2654       </p><p>
2655           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.blender.org" target="_top">http://www.blender.org</a>
2656         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: crowdfunding
2657 (subscription-based), charging for physical copies, selling merchandise
2658       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: March 8, 2016
2659       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Francesco Siddi, production
2660 coordinator
2661       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
2662     \textit{
2663         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
2664       }
2665     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
2666       For Ton Roosendaal, the creator of Blender software and its related
2667 entities, sharing is practical. Making their 3-D content creation software
2668 available under a free software license has been integral to its development
2669 and popularity. Using that software to make movies that were licensed with
2670 Creative Commons pushed that development even further. Sharing enables
2671 people to participate and to interact with and build upon the technology and
2672 content they create in a way that benefits Blender and its community in
2673 concrete ways.
2674     </p><p>
2675       Each open-movie project Blender runs produces a host of openly licensed
2676 outputs, not just the final film itself but all of the source material as
2677 well. The creative process also enhances the development of the Blender
2678 software because the technical team responds directly to the needs of the
2679 film production team, creating tools and features that make their lives
2680 easier. And, of course, each project involves a long, rewarding process for
2681 the creative and technical community working together.
2682     </p><p>
2683       Rather than just talking about the theoretical benefits of sharing and free
2684 culture, Ton is very much about doing and making free culture. Blender’s
2685 production coordinator Francesco Siddi told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Ton believes if you
2686 don’t make content using your tools, then you’re not doing anything.</span>”</span>
2687     </p><p>
2688       Blender’s history begins in the late 1990s, when Ton created the Blender
2689 software. Originally, the software was an in-house resource for his
2690 animation studio based in the Netherlands.  Investors became interested in
2691 the software, so he began marketing the software to the public, offering a
2692 free version in addition to a paid version. Sales were disappointing, and
2693 his investors gave up on the endeavor in the early 2000s. He made a deal
2694 with investors—if he could raise enough money, he could then make the
2695 Blender software available under the GNU General Public License.
2696     </p><p>
2697       This was long before Kickstarter and other online crowdfunding sites
2698 existed, but Ton ran his own version of a crowdfunding campaign and quickly
2699 raised the money he needed. The Blender software became freely available for
2700 anyone to use. Simply applying the General Public License to the software,
2701 however, was not enough to create a thriving community around it. Francesco
2702 told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Software of this complexity relies on people and their
2703 vision of how people work together. Ton is a fantastic community builder and
2704 manager, and he put a lot of work into fostering a community of developers
2705 so that the project could live.</span>”</span>
2706     </p><p>
2707       Like any successful free and open-source software project, Blender developed
2708 quickly because the community could make fixes and
2709 improvements. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Software should be free and open to hack,</span>”</span>
2710 Francesco said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Otherwise, everyone is doing the same thing in the
2711 dark for ten years.</span>”</span> Ton set up the Blender Foundation to oversee and
2712 steward the software development and maintenance.
2713     </p><p>
2714       After a few years, Ton began looking for new ways to push development of the
2715 software. He came up with the idea of creating CC-licensed films using the
2716 Blender software. Ton put a call online for all interested and skilled
2717 artists. Francesco said the idea was to get the best artists available, put
2718 them in a building together with the best developers, and have them work
2719 together.  They would not only produce high-quality openly licensed content,
2720 they would improve the Blender software in the process.
2721     </p><p>
2722       They turned to crowdfunding to subsidize the costs of the project.  They had
2723 about twenty people working full-time for six to ten months, so the costs
2724 were significant. Francesco said that when their crowdfunding campaign
2725 succeeded, people were astounded.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The idea that making money was
2726 possible by producing CC-licensed material was mind-blowing to
2727 people,</span>”</span> he said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">They were like, <span class="quote">‘<span class="quote">I have to see it to
2728 believe it.</span>’</span></span>”</span>
2729     </p><p>
2730       The first film, which was released in 2006, was an experiment. It was so
2731 successful that Ton decided to set up the Blender Institute, an entity
2732 dedicated to hosting open-movie projects. The Blender Institute’s next
2733 project was an even bigger success. The film, Big Buck Bunny, went viral,
2734 and its animated characters were picked up by marketers.
2735     </p><p>
2736       Francesco said that, over time, the Blender Institute projects have gotten
2737 bigger and more prominent. That means the filmmaking process has become more
2738 complex, combining technical experts and artists who focus on
2739 storytelling. Francesco says the process is almost on an industrial scale
2740 because of the number of moving parts. This requires a lot of specialized
2741 assistance, but the Blender Institute has no problem finding the talent it
2742 needs to help on projects. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Blender hardly does any recruiting for
2743 film projects because the talent emerges naturally,</span>”</span> Francesco
2744 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">So many people want to work with us, and we can’t always hire
2745 them because of budget constraints.</span>”</span>
2746     </p><p>
2747       Blender has had a lot of success raising money from its community over the
2748 years. In many ways, the pitch has gotten easier to make.  Not only is
2749 crowdfunding simply more familiar to the public, but people know and trust
2750 Blender to deliver, and Ton has developed a reputation as an effective
2751 community leader and visionary for their work. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is a whole
2752 community who sees and understands the benefit of these projects,</span>”</span>
2753 Francesco said.
2754     </p><p>
2755       While these benefits of each open-movie project make a compelling pitch for
2756 crowdfunding campaigns, Francesco told us the Blender Institute has found
2757 some limitations in the standard crowdfunding model where you propose a
2758 specific project and ask for funding.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Once a project is over,
2759 everyone goes home,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It is great fun, but then it
2760 ends. That is a problem.</span>”</span>
2761     </p><p>
2762       To make their work more sustainable, they needed a way to receive ongoing
2763 support rather than on a project-by-project basis. Their solution is Blender
2764 Cloud, a subscription-style crowdfunding model akin to the online
2765 crowdfunding platform, Patreon. For about ten euros each month, subscribers
2766 get access to download everything the Blender Institute produces—software,
2767 art, training, and more.  All of the assets are available under an
2768 Attribution license (CC BY) or placed in the public domain (CC0), but they
2769 are initially made available only to subscribers. Blender Cloud enables
2770 subscribers to follow Blender’s movie projects as they develop, sharing
2771 detailed information and content used in the creative process. Blender Cloud
2772 also has extensive training materials and libraries of characters and other
2773 assets used in various projects.
2774     </p><p>
2775       The continuous financial support provided by Blender Cloud subsidizes five
2776 to six full-time employees at the Blender Institute. Francesco says their
2777 goal is to grow their subscriber base. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">This is our freedom,</span>”</span>
2778 he told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">and for artists, freedom is everything.</span>”</span>
2779     </p><p>
2780       Blender Cloud is the primary revenue stream of the Blender Institute. The
2781 Blender Foundation is funded primarily by donations, and that money goes
2782 toward software development and maintenance. The revenue streams of the
2783 Institute and Foundation are deliberately kept separate. Blender also has
2784 other revenue streams, such as the Blender Store, where people can purchase
2785 DVDs, T-shirts, and other Blender products.
2786     </p><p>
2787       Ton has worked on projects relating to his Blender software for nearly
2788 twenty years. Throughout most of that time, he has been committed to making
2789 the software and the content produced with the software free and
2790 open. Selling a license has never been part of the business model.
2791     </p><p>
2792       Since 2006, he has been making films available along with all of their
2793 source material. He says he has hardly ever seen people stepping into
2794 Blender’s shoes and trying to make money off of their content. Ton believes
2795 this is because the true value of what they do is in the creative and
2796 production process. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Even when you share everything, all your original
2797 sources, it still takes a lot of talent, skills, time, and budget to
2798 reproduce what you did,</span>”</span> Ton said.
2799     </p><p>
2800       For Ton and Blender, it all comes back to doing.
2801     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="cards-against-humanity"></a>第 7 章 Cards Against Humanity</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
2802         Cards Against Humanity is a private, for-profit company that makes a popular
2803 party game by the same name. Founded in 2011 in the U.S.
2804       </p><p>
2805           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.cardsagainsthumanity.com" target="_top">http://www.cardsagainsthumanity.com</a>
2806         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for physical
2807 copies
2808       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 3, 2016
2809       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Max Temkin, cofounder
2810       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
2811     \textit{
2812         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
2813       }
2814     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
2815       If you ask cofounder Max Temkin, there is nothing particularly interesting
2816 about the Cards Against Humanity business model.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We make a
2817 product. We sell it for money. Then we spend less money than we
2818 make,</span>”</span> Max said.
2819     </p><p>
2820       He is right. Cards Against Humanity is a simple party game, modeled after
2821 the game Apples to Apples. To play, one player asks a question or
2822 fill-in-the-blank statement from a black card, and the other players submit
2823 their funniest white card in response.  The catch is that all of the cards
2824 are filled with crude, gruesome, and otherwise awful things. For the right
2825 kind of people (<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">horrible people,</span>”</span> according to Cards Against
2826 Humanity advertising), this makes for a hilarious and fun game.
2827     </p><p>
2828       The revenue model is simple. Physical copies of the game are sold for a
2829 profit. And it works. At the time of this writing, Cards Against Humanity is
2830 the number-one best-selling item out of all toys and games on Amazon. There
2831 are official expansion packs available, and several official themed packs
2832 and international editions as well.
2833     </p><p>
2834       But Cards Against Humanity is also available for free. Anyone can download a
2835 digital version of the game on the Cards Against Humanity website. More than
2836 one million people have downloaded the game since the company began tracking
2837 the numbers.
2838     </p><p>
2839       The game is available under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license
2840 (CC BY-NC-SA). That means, in addition to copying the game, anyone can
2841 create new versions of the game as long as they make it available under the
2842 same noncommercial terms. The ability to adapt the game is like an entire
2843 new game unto itself.
2844     </p><p>
2845       All together, these factors—the crass tone of the game and company, the free
2846 download, the openness to fans remixing the game—give the game a massive
2847 cult following.
2848     </p><p>
2849       Their success is not the result of a grand plan. Instead, Cards Against
2850 Humanity was the last in a long line of games and comedy projects that Max
2851 Temkin and his friends put together for their own amusement. As Max tells
2852 the story, they made the game so they could play it themselves on New Year’s
2853 Eve because they were too nerdy to be invited to other parties. The game was
2854 a hit, so they decided to put it up online as a free PDF. People started
2855 asking if they could pay to have the game printed for them, and eventually
2856 they decided to run a Kickstarter to fund the printing.  They set their
2857 Kickstarter goal at $4,000—and raised $15,000. The game was officially
2858 released in May 2011.
2859     </p><p>
2860       The game caught on quickly, and it has only grown more popular over
2861 time. Max says the eight founders never had a meeting where they decided to
2862 make it an ongoing business. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It kind of just happened,</span>”</span> he
2863 said.
2864     </p><p>
2865       But this tale of a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">happy accident</span>”</span> belies marketing
2866 genius. Just like the game, the Cards Against Humanity brand is irreverent
2867 and memorable. It is hard to forget a company that calls the FAQ on their
2868 website <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Your dumb questions.</span>”</span>
2869     </p><p>
2870       Like most quality satire, however, there is more to the joke than vulgarity
2871 and shock value. The company’s marketing efforts around Black Friday
2872 illustrate this particularly well. For those outside the United States,
2873 Black Friday is the term for the day after the Thanksgiving holiday, the
2874 biggest shopping day of the year. It is an incredibly important day for
2875 Cards Against Humanity, like it is for all U.S. retailers. Max said they
2876 struggled with what to do on Black Friday because they didn’t want to
2877 support what he called the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">orgy of consumerism</span>”</span> the day has
2878 become, particularly since it follows a day that is about being grateful for
2879 what you have. In 2013, after deliberating, they decided to have an
2880 Everything Costs $5 More sale.
2881     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We sweated it out the night before Black Friday, wondering if our
2882 fans were going to hate us for it,</span>”</span> he said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">But it made us
2883 laugh so we went with it. People totally caught the joke.</span>”</span>
2884     </p><p>
2885       This sort of bold transparency delights the media, but more importantly, it
2886 engages their fans. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">One of the most surprising things you can do in
2887 capitalism is just be honest with people,</span>”</span> Max said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It shocks
2888 people that there is transparency about what you are doing.</span>”</span>
2889     </p><p>
2890       Max also likened it to a grand improv scene. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If we do something a
2891 little subversive and unexpected, the public wants to be a part of the
2892 joke.</span>”</span> One year they did a Give Cards Against Humanity $5 event,
2893 where people literally paid them five dollars for no reason. Their fans
2894 wanted to make the joke funnier by making it successful. They made $70,000
2895 in a single day.
2896     </p><p>
2897       This remarkable trust they have in their customers is what inspired their
2898 decision to apply a Creative Commons license to the game. Trusting your
2899 customers to reuse and remix your work requires a leap of faith. Cards
2900 Against Humanity obviously isn’t afraid of doing the unexpected, but there
2901 are lines even they do not want to cross. Before applying the license, Max
2902 said they worried that some fans would adapt the game to include all of the
2903 jokes they intentionally never made because they crossed that
2904 line. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It happened, and the world didn’t end,</span>”</span> Max
2905 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If that is the worst cost of using CC, I’d pay that a hundred
2906 times over because there are so many benefits.</span>”</span>
2907     </p><p>
2908       Any successful product inspires its biggest fans to create remixes of it,
2909 but unsanctioned adaptations are more likely to fly under the radar. The
2910 Creative Commons license gives fans of Cards Against Humanity the freedom to
2911 run with the game and copy, adapt, and promote their creations openly. Today
2912 there are thousands of fan expansions of the game.
2913     </p><p>
2914       Max said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">CC was a no-brainer for us because it gets the most people
2915 involved. Making the game free and available under a CC license led to the
2916 unbelievable situation where we are one of the best-marketed games in the
2917 world, and we have never spent a dime on marketing.</span>”</span>
2918     </p><p>
2919       Of course, there are limits to what the company allows its customers to do
2920 with the game. They chose the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license
2921 because it restricts people from using the game to make money. It also
2922 requires that adaptations of the game be made available under the same
2923 licensing terms if they are shared publicly. Cards Against Humanity also
2924 polices its brand. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We feel like we’re the only ones who can use our
2925 brand and our game and make money off of it,</span>”</span> Max said. About 99.9
2926 percent of the time, they just send an email to those making commercial use
2927 of the game, and that is the end of it. There have only been a handful of
2928 instances where they had to get a lawyer involved.
2929     </p><p>
2930       Just as there is more than meets the eye to the Cards Against Humanity
2931 business model, the same can be said of the game itself.  To be playable,
2932 every white card has to work syntactically with enough black cards. The
2933 eight creators invest an incredible amount of work into creating new cards
2934 for the game. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We have daylong arguments about commas,</span>”</span> Max
2935 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The slacker tone of the cards gives people the impression that
2936 it is easy to write them, but it is actually a lot of work and
2937 quibbling.</span>”</span>
2938     </p><p>
2939       That means cocreation with their fans really doesn’t work. The company has a
2940 submission mechanism on their website, and they get thousands of
2941 suggestions, but it is very rare that a submitted card is adopted. Instead,
2942 the eight initial creators remain the primary authors of expansion decks and
2943 other new products released by the company. Interestingly, the creativity of
2944 their customer base is really only an asset to the company once their
2945 original work is created and published when people make their own
2946 adaptations of the game.
2947     </p><p>
2948       For all of their success, the creators of Cards Against Humanity are only
2949 partially motivated by money. Max says they have always been interested in
2950 the Walt Disney philosophy of financial success. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We don’t make jokes
2951 and games to make money—we make money so we can make more jokes and
2952 games,</span>”</span> he said.
2953     </p><p>
2954       In fact, the company has given more than $4 million to various charities and
2955 causes. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Cards is not our life plan,</span>”</span> Max said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We all
2956 have other interests and hobbies. We are passionate about other things going
2957 on in our lives. A lot of the activism we have done comes out of us taking
2958 things from the rest of our lives and channeling some of the excitement from
2959 the game into it.</span>”</span>
2960     </p><p>
2961       Seeing money as fuel rather than the ultimate goal is what has enabled them
2962 to embrace Creative Commons licensing without reservation. CC licensing
2963 ended up being a savvy marketing move for the company, but nonetheless,
2964 giving up exclusive control of your work necessarily means giving up some
2965 opportunities to extract more money from customers.
2966     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s not right for everyone to release everything under CC
2967 licensing,</span>”</span> Max said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If your only goal is to make a lot of
2968 money, then CC is not best strategy. This kind of business model, though,
2969 speaks to your values, and who you are and why you’re making things.</span>”</span>
2970     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="the-conversation"></a>第 8 章 The Conversation</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
2971         The Conversation is an independent source of news, sourced from the academic
2972 and research community and delivered direct to the public over the
2973 Internet. Founded in 2011 in Australia.
2974       </p><p>
2975           <a class="ulink" href="http://theconversation.com" target="_top">http://theconversation.com</a>
2976         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging content creators
2977 (universities pay membership fees to have their faculties serve as writers),
2978 grant funding
2979       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 4, 2016
2980       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Andrew Jaspan, founder
2981       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
2982     \textit{
2983         Profile written by Paul Stacey
2984       }
2985     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
2986       Andrew Jaspan spent years as an editor of major newspapers including the
2987 Observer in London, the Sunday Herald in Glasgow, and the Age in Melbourne,
2988 Australia. He experienced firsthand the decline of newspapers, including the
2989 collapse of revenues, layoffs, and the constant pressure to reduce
2990 costs. After he left the Age in 2005, his concern for the future journalism
2991 didn’t go away. Andrew made a commitment to come up with an alternative
2992 model.
2993     </p><p>
2994       Around the time he left his job as editor of the Melbourne Age, Andrew
2995 wondered where citizens would get news grounded in fact and evidence rather
2996 than opinion or ideology. He believed there was still an appetite for
2997 journalism with depth and substance but was concerned about the increasing
2998 focus on the sensational and sexy.
2999     </p><p>
3000       While at the Age, he’d become friends with a vice-chancellor of a university
3001 in Melbourne who encouraged him to talk to smart people across campus—an
3002 astrophysicist, a Nobel laureate, earth scientists, economists . . . These
3003 were the kind of smart people he wished were more involved in informing the
3004 world about what is going on and correcting the errors that appear in
3005 media. However, they were reluctant to engage with mass media. Often,
3006 journalists didn’t understand what they said, or unilaterally chose what
3007 aspect of a story to tell, putting out a version that these people felt was
3008 wrong or mischaracterized. Newspapers want to attract a mass
3009 audience. Scholars want to communicate serious news, findings, and
3010 insights. It’s not a perfect match. Universities are massive repositories of
3011 knowledge, research, wisdom, and expertise. But a lot of that stays behind a
3012 wall of their own making—there are the walled garden and ivory tower
3013 metaphors, and in more literal terms, the paywall. Broadly speaking,
3014 universities are part of society but disconnected from it. They are an
3015 enormous public resource but not that good at presenting their expertise to
3016 the wider public.
3017     </p><p>
3018       Andrew believed he could to help connect academics back into the public
3019 arena, and maybe help society find solutions to big problems. He thought
3020 about pairing professional editors with university and research experts,
3021 working one-on-one to refine everything from story structure to headline,
3022 captions, and quotes.  The editors could help turn something that is
3023 academic into something understandable and readable. And this would be a key
3024 difference from traditional journalism—the subject matter expert would get a
3025 chance to check the article and give final approval before it is
3026 published. Compare this with reporters just picking and choosing the quotes
3027 and writing whatever they want.
3028     </p><p>
3029       The people he spoke to liked this idea, and Andrew embarked on raising money
3030 and support with the help of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
3031 Research Organisation (CSIRO), the University of Melbourne, Monash
3032 University, the University of Technology Sydney, and the University of
3033 Western Australia. These founding partners saw the value of an independent
3034 information channel that would also showcase the talent and knowledge of the
3035 university and research sector. With their help, in 2011, the Conversation,
3036 was launched as an independent news site in Australia. Everything published
3037 in the Conversation is openly licensed with Creative Commons.
3038     </p><p>
3039       The Conversation is founded on the belief that underpinning a functioning
3040 democracy is access to independent, high-quality, informative
3041 journalism. The Conversation’s aim is for people to have a better
3042 understanding of current affairs and complex issues—and hopefully a better
3043 quality of public discourse. The Conversation sees itself as a source of
3044 trusted information dedicated to the public good. Their core mission is
3045 simple: to provide readers with a reliable source of evidence-based
3046 information.
3047     </p><p>
3048       Andrew worked hard to reinvent a methodology for creating reliable, credible
3049 content. He introduced strict new working practices, a charter, and codes of
3050 conduct.<a href="#ftn.idm1075" class="footnote" name="idm1075"><sup class="footnote">[114]</sup></a> These include fully disclosing
3051 who every author is (with their relevant expertise); who is funding their
3052 research; and if there are any potential or real conflicts of interest. Also
3053 important is where the content originates, and even though it comes from the
3054 university and research community, it still needs to be fully disclosed. The
3055 Conversation does not sit behind a paywall. Andrew believes access to
3056 information is an issue of equality—everyone should have access, like access
3057 to clean water.  The Conversation is committed to an open and free
3058 Internet.  Everyone should have free access to their content, and be able to
3059 share it or republish it.
3060     </p><p>
3061       Creative Commons help with these goals; articles are published with the
3062 Attribution- NoDerivs license (CC BY-ND). They’re freely available for
3063 others to republish elsewhere as long as attribution is given and the
3064 content is not edited. Over five years, more than twenty-two thousand sites
3065 have republished their content. The Conversation website gets about 2.9
3066 million unique views per month, but through republication they have
3067 thirty-five million readers. This couldn’t have been done without the
3068 Creative Commons license, and in Andrew’s view, Creative Commons is central
3069 to everything the Conversation does.
3070     </p><p>
3071       When readers come across the Conversation, they seem to like what they find
3072 and recommend it to their friends, peers, and networks.  Readership has
3073 grown primarily through word of mouth. While they don’t have sales and
3074 marketing, they do promote their work through social media (including
3075 Twitter and Facebook), and by being an accredited supplier to Google News.
3076     </p><p>
3077       It’s usual for the founders of any company to ask themselves what kind of
3078 company it should be. It quickly became clear to the founders of the
3079 Conversation that they wanted to create a public good rather than make money
3080 off of information. Most media companies are working to aggregate as many
3081 eyeballs as possible and sell ads. The Conversation founders didn’t want
3082 this model. It takes no advertising and is a not-for-profit venture.
3083     </p><p>
3084       There are now different editions of the Conversation for Africa, the United
3085 Kingdom, France, and the United States, in addition to the one for
3086 Australia. All five editions have their own editorial mastheads, advisory
3087 boards, and content. The Conversation’s global virtual newsroom has roughly
3088 ninety staff working with thirty-five thousand academics from over sixteen
3089 hundred universities around the world. The Conversation would like to be
3090 working with university scholars from even more parts of the world.
3091     </p><p>
3092       Additionally, each edition has its own set of founding partners, strategic
3093 partners, and funders. They’ve received funding from foundations,
3094 corporates, institutions, and individual donations, but the Conversation is
3095 shifting toward paid memberships by universities and research institutions
3096 to sustain operations. This would safeguard the current service and help
3097 improve coverage and features.
3098     </p><p>
3099       When professors from member universities write an article, there is some
3100 branding of the university associated with the article. On the Conversation
3101 website, paying university members are listed as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">members and
3102 funders.</span>”</span> Early participants may be designated as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">founding
3103 members,</span>”</span> with seats on the editorial advisory board.
3104     </p><p>
3105       Academics are not paid for their contributions, but they get free editing
3106 from a professional (four to five hours per piece, on average). They also
3107 get access to a large audience. Every author and member university has
3108 access to a special analytics dashboard where they can check the reach of an
3109 article. The metrics include what people are tweeting, the comments,
3110 countries the readership represents, where the article is being republished,
3111 and the number of readers per article.
3112     </p><p>
3113       The Conversation plans to expand the dashboard to show not just reach but
3114 impact. This tracks activities, behaviors, and events that occurred as a
3115 result of publication, including things like a scholar being asked to go on
3116 a show to discuss their piece, give a talk at a conference, collaborate,
3117 submit a journal paper, and consult a company on a topic.
3118     </p><p>
3119       These reach and impact metrics show the benefits of membership.  With the
3120 Conversation, universities can engage with the public and show why they’re
3121 of value.
3122     </p><p>
3123       With its tagline, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Academic Rigor, Journalistic Flair,</span>”</span> the
3124 Conversation represents a new form of journalism that contributes to a more
3125 informed citizenry and improved democracy around the world. Its open
3126 business model and use of Creative Commons show how it’s possible to
3127 generate both a public good and operational revenue at the same time.
3128     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1075" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1075" class="para"><sup class="para">[114] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://theconversation.com/us/charter" target="_top">http://theconversation.com/us/charter</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="cory-doctorow"></a>第 9 章 Cory Doctorow</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
3129         Cory Doctorow is a science fiction writer, activist, blogger, and
3130 journalist. Based in the U.S.
3131       </p><p><a class="ulink" href="http://craphound.com" target="_top">http://craphound.com</a> and <a class="ulink" href="http://boingboing.net" target="_top">http://boingboing.net</a>
3132       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for physical
3133 copies (book sales), pay-what-you-want, selling translation rights to books
3134       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: January 12, 2016
3135       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
3136     \textit{
3137         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
3138       }
3139     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
3140       Cory Doctorow hates the term <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">business model,</span>”</span> and he is
3141 adamant that he is not a brand. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">To me, branding is the idea that you
3142 can take a thing that has certain qualities, remove the qualities, and go on
3143 selling it,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I’m not out there trying to figure out
3144 how to be a brand. I’m doing this thing that animates me to work crazy
3145 insane hours because it’s the most important thing I know how to do.</span>”</span>
3146     </p><p>
3147       Cory calls himself an entrepreneur. He likes to say his success came from
3148 making stuff people happened to like and then getting out of the way of them
3149 sharing it.
3150     </p><p>
3151       He is a science fiction writer, activist, blogger, and journalist.
3152 Beginning with his first novel, Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom, in 2003,
3153 his work has been published under a Creative Commons license. Cory is
3154 coeditor of the popular CC-licensed site Boing Boing, where he writes about
3155 technology, politics, and intellectual property. He has also written several
3156 nonfiction books, including the most recent Information Doesn’t Want to Be
3157 Free, about the ways in which creators can make a living in the Internet
3158 age.
3159     </p><p>
3160       Cory primarily makes money by selling physical books, but he also takes on
3161 paid speaking gigs and is experimenting with pay-what-you-want models for
3162 his work.
3163     </p><p>
3164       While Cory’s extensive body of fiction work has a large following, he is
3165 just as well known for his activism. He is an outspoken opponent of
3166 restrictive copyright and digital-rights-management (DRM) technology used to
3167 lock up content because he thinks both undermine creators and the public
3168 interest. He is currently a special adviser at the Electronic Frontier
3169 Foundation, where he is involved in a lawsuit challenging the U.S. law that
3170 protects DRM.  Cory says his political work doesn’t directly make him money,
3171 but if he gave it up, he thinks he would lose credibility and, more
3172 importantly, lose the drive that propels him to create. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">My political
3173 work is a different expression of the same artistic-political urge,</span>”</span>
3174 he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I have this suspicion that if I gave up the things that
3175 didn’t make me money, the genuineness would leach out of what I do, and the
3176 quality that causes people to like what I do would be gone.</span>”</span>
3177     </p><p>
3178       Cory has been financially successful, but money is not his primary
3179 motivation. At the start of his book Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, he
3180 stresses how important it is not to become an artist if your goal is to get
3181 rich. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Entering the arts because you want to get rich is like buying
3182 lottery tickets because you want to get rich,</span>”</span> he wrote. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It
3183 might work, but it almost certainly won’t. Though, of course, someone always
3184 wins the lottery.</span>”</span> He acknowledges that he is one of the lucky few to
3185 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">make it,</span>”</span> but he says he would be writing no matter
3186 what. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I am compelled to write,</span>”</span> he wrote.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Long before
3187 I wrote to keep myself fed and sheltered, I was writing to keep myself
3188 sane.</span>”</span>
3189     </p><p>
3190       Just as money is not his primary motivation to create, money is not his
3191 primary motivation to share. For Cory, sharing his work with Creative
3192 Commons is a moral imperative. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It felt morally right,</span>”</span> he said
3193 of his decision to adopt Creative Commons licenses. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I felt like I
3194 wasn’t contributing to the culture of surveillance and censorship that has
3195 been created to try to stop copying.</span>”</span> In other words, using CC
3196 licenses symbolizes his worldview.
3197     </p><p>
3198       He also feels like there is a solid commercial basis for licensing his work
3199 with Creative Commons. While he acknowledges he hasn’t been able to do a
3200 controlled experiment to compare the commercial benefits of licensing with
3201 CC against reserving all rights, he thinks he has sold more books using a CC
3202 license than he would have without it. Cory says his goal is to convince
3203 people they should pay him for his work. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I started by not calling
3204 them thieves,</span>”</span> he said.
3205     </p><p>
3206       Cory started using CC licenses soon after they were first created.  At the
3207 time his first novel came out, he says the science fiction genre was overrun
3208 with people scanning and downloading books without permission. When he and
3209 his publisher took a closer look at who was doing that sort of thing online,
3210 they realized it looked a lot like book promotion. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I knew there was a
3211 relationship between having enthusiastic readers and having a successful
3212 career as a writer,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">At the time, it took eighty
3213 hours to OCR a book, which is a big effort. I decided to spare them the time
3214 and energy, and give them the book for free in a format destined to
3215 spread.</span>”</span>
3216     </p><p>
3217       Cory admits the stakes were pretty low for him when he first adopted
3218 Creative Commons licenses. He only had to sell two thousand copies of his
3219 book to break even. People often said he was only able to use CC licenses
3220 successfully at that time because he was just starting out. Now they say he
3221 can only do it because he is an established author.
3222     </p><p>
3223       The bottom line, Cory says, is that no one has found a way to prevent people
3224 from copying the stuff they like. Rather than fighting the tide, Cory makes
3225 his work intrinsically shareable.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Getting the hell out of the way
3226 for people who want to share their love of you with other people sounds
3227 obvious, but it’s remarkable how many people don’t do it,</span>”</span> he said.
3228     </p><p>
3229       Making his work available under Creative Commons licenses enables him to
3230 view his biggest fans as his ambassadors. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Being open to fan activity
3231 makes you part of the conversation about what fans do with your work and how
3232 they interact with it,</span>”</span> he said.  Cory’s own website routinely
3233 highlights cool things his audience has done with his work. Unlike
3234 corporations like Disney that tend to have a hands-off relationship with
3235 their fan activity, he has a symbiotic relationship with his
3236 audience. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Engaging with your audience can’t guarantee you
3237 success,</span>”</span> he said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">And Disney is an example of being able to
3238 remain aloof and still being the most successful company in the creative
3239 industry in history. But I figure my likelihood of being Disney is pretty
3240 slim, so I should take all the help I can get.</span>”</span>
3241     </p><p>
3242       His first book was published under the most restrictive Creative Commons
3243 license, Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND).  It allows only
3244 verbatim copying for noncommercial purposes. His later work is published
3245 under the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license (CC BY-NC-SA), which
3246 gives people the right to adapt his work for noncommercial purposes but only
3247 if they share it back under the same license terms. Before releasing his
3248 work under a CC license that allows adaptations, he always sells the right
3249 to translate the book to other languages to a commercial publisher first. He
3250 wants to reach new potential buyers in other parts of the world, and he
3251 thinks it is more difficult to get people to pay for translations if there
3252 are fan translations already available for free.
3253     </p><p>
3254       In his book Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free, Cory likens his philosophy
3255 to thinking like a dandelion. Dandelions produce thousands of seeds each
3256 spring, and they are blown into the air going in every direction. The
3257 strategy is to maximize the number of blind chances the dandelion has for
3258 continuing its genetic line. Similarly, he says there are lots of people out
3259 there who may want to buy creative work or compensate authors for it in some
3260 other way. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The more places your work can find itself, the greater the
3261 likelihood that it will find one of those would-be customers in some
3262 unsuspected crack in the metaphorical pavement,</span>”</span> he wrote. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The
3263 copies that others make of my work cost me nothing, and present the
3264 possibility that I’ll get something.</span>”</span>
3265     </p><p>
3266       Applying a CC license to his work increases the chances it will be shared
3267 more widely around the Web. He avoids DRM—and openly opposes the
3268 practice—for similar reasons. DRM has the effect of tying a work to a
3269 particular platform. This digital lock, in turn, strips the authors of
3270 control over their own work and hands that control over to the platform. He
3271 calls it Cory’s First Law: <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Anytime someone puts a lock on something
3272 that belongs to you and won’t give you the key, that lock isn’t there for
3273 your benefit.</span>”</span>
3274     </p><p>
3275       Cory operates under the premise that artists benefit when there are more,
3276 rather than fewer, places where people can access their work. The Internet
3277 has opened up those avenues, but DRM is designed to limit them. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">On
3278 the one hand, we can credibly make our work available to a widely dispersed
3279 audience,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">On the other hand, the intermediaries we
3280 historically sold to are making it harder to go around them.</span>”</span> Cory
3281 continually looks for ways to reach his audience without relying upon major
3282 platforms that will try to take control over his work.
3283     </p><p>
3284       Cory says his e-book sales have been lower than those of his competitors,
3285 and he attributes some of that to the CC license making the work available
3286 for free. But he believes people are willing to pay for content they like,
3287 even when it is available for free, as long as it is easy to do. He was
3288 extremely successful using Humble Bundle, a platform that allows people to
3289 pay what they want for DRM-free versions of a bundle of a particular
3290 creator’s work. He is planning to try his own pay-what-you-want experiment
3291 soon.
3292     </p><p>
3293       Fans are particularly willing to pay when they feel personally connected to
3294 the artist. Cory works hard to create that personal connection. One way he
3295 does this is by personally answering every single email he gets. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If
3296 you look at the history of artists, most die in penury,</span>”</span> he
3297 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">That reality means that for artists, we have to find ways to
3298 support ourselves when public tastes shift, when copyright stops producing.
3299 Future-proofing your artistic career in many ways means figuring out how to
3300 stay connected to those people who have been touched by your work.</span>”</span>
3301     </p><p>
3302       Cory’s realism about the difficulty of making a living in the arts does not
3303 reflect pessimism about the Internet age. Instead, he says the fact that it
3304 is hard to make a living as an artist is nothing new. What is new, he writes
3305 in his book, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">is how many ways there are to make things, and to get
3306 them into other people’s hands and minds.</span>”</span>
3307     </p><p>
3308       It has never been easier to think like a dandelion.
3309     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="figshare"></a>第 10 章 Figshare</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
3310         Figshare is a for-profit company offering an online repository where
3311 researchers can preserve and share the output of their research, including
3312 figures, data sets, images, and videos.  Founded in 2011 in the UK.
3313       </p><p>
3314           <a class="ulink" href="http://figshare.com" target="_top">http://figshare.com</a>
3315         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: platform providing paid
3316 services to creators
3317       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: January 28, 2016
3318       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Mark Hahnel, founder
3319       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
3320     \textit{
3321         Profile written by Paul Stacey
3322       }
3323     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
3324       Figshare’s mission is to change the face of academic publishing through
3325 improved dissemination, discoverability, and reusability of scholarly
3326 research. Figshare is a repository where users can make all the output of
3327 their research available—from posters and presentations to data sets and
3328 code—in a way that’s easy to discover, cite, and share. Users can upload any
3329 file format, which can then be previewed in a Web browser. Research output
3330 is disseminated in a way that the current scholarly-publishing model does
3331 not allow.
3332     </p><p>
3333       Figshare founder Mark Hahnel often gets asked: How do you make money? How do
3334 we know you’ll be here in five years? Can you, as a for-profit venture, be
3335 trusted? Answers have evolved over time.
3336     </p><p>
3337       Mark traces the origins of Figshare back to when he was a graduate student
3338 getting his PhD in stem cell biology. His research involved working with
3339 videos of stem cells in motion. However, when he went to publish his
3340 research, there was no way for him to also publish the videos, figures,
3341 graphs, and data sets. This was frustrating. Mark believed publishing his
3342 complete research would lead to more citations and be better for his career.
3343     </p><p>
3344       Mark does not consider himself an advanced software programmer.
3345 Fortunately, things like cloud-based computing and wikis had become
3346 mainstream, and he believed it ought to be possible to put all his research
3347 online and share it with anyone. So he began working on a solution.
3348     </p><p>
3349       There were two key needs: licenses to make the data citable, and persistent
3350 identifiers— URL links that always point back to the original object
3351 ensuring the research is citable for the long term.
3352     </p><p>
3353       Mark chose Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) to meet the need for a
3354 persistent identifier. In the DOI system, an object’s metadata is stored as
3355 a series of numbers in the DOI name. Referring to an object by its DOI is
3356 more stable than referring to it by its URL, because the location of an
3357 object (the web page or URL) can often change. Mark partnered with DataCite
3358 for the provision of DOIs for research data.
3359     </p><p>
3360       As for licenses, Mark chose Creative Commons. The open-access and
3361 open-science communities were already using and recommending Creative
3362 Commons. Based on what was happening in those communities and Mark’s
3363 dialogue with peers, he went with CC0 (in the public domain) for data sets
3364 and CC BY (Attribution) for figures, videos, and data sets.
3365     </p><p>
3366       So Mark began using DOIs and Creative Commons for his own research work. He
3367 had a science blog where he wrote about it and made all his data
3368 open. People started commenting on his blog that they wanted to do the
3369 same. So he opened it up for them to use, too.
3370     </p><p>
3371       People liked the interface and simple upload process. People started asking
3372 if they could also share theses, grant proposals, and code. Inclusion of
3373 code raised new licensing issues, as Creative Commons licenses are not used
3374 for software. To allow the sharing of software code, Mark chose the MIT
3375 license, but GNU and Apache licenses can also be used.
3376     </p><p>
3377       Mark sought investment to make this into a scalable product. After a few
3378 unsuccessful funding pitches, UK-based Digital Science expressed interest
3379 but insisted on a more viable business model.  They made an initial
3380 investment, and together they came up with a freemium-like business model.
3381     </p><p>
3382       Under the freemium model, academics upload their research to Figshare for
3383 storage and sharing for free. Each research object is licensed with Creative
3384 Commons and receives a DOI link. The premium option charges researchers a
3385 fee for gigabytes of private storage space, and for private online space
3386 designed for a set number of research collaborators, which is ideal for
3387 larger teams and geographically dispersed research groups. Figshare sums up
3388 its value proposition to researchers as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">You retain ownership.  You
3389 license it. You get credit. We just make sure it persists.</span>”</span>
3390     </p><p>
3391       In January 2012, Figshare was launched. (The fig in Figshare stands for
3392 figures.) Using investment funds, Mark made significant improvements to
3393 Figshare. For example, researchers could quickly preview their research
3394 files within a browser without having to download them first or require
3395 third-party software. Journals who were still largely publishing articles as
3396 static noninteractive PDFs became interested in having Figshare provide that
3397 functionality for them.
3398     </p><p>
3399       Figshare diversified its business model to include services for
3400 journals. Figshare began hosting large amounts of data for the journals’
3401 online articles. This additional data improved the quality of the
3402 articles. Outsourcing this service to Figshare freed publishers from having
3403 to develop this functionality as part of their own
3404 infrastructure. Figshare-hosted data also provides a link back to the
3405 article, generating additional click-through and readership—a benefit to
3406 both journal publishers and researchers.  Figshare now provides
3407 research-data infrastructure for a wide variety of publishers including
3408 Wiley, Springer Nature, PLOS, and Taylor and Francis, to name a few, and has
3409 convinced them to use Creative Commons licenses for the data.
3410     </p><p>
3411       Governments allocate significant public funds to research. In parallel with
3412 the launch of Figshare, governments around the world began requesting the
3413 research they fund be open and accessible.  They mandated that researchers
3414 and academic institutions better manage and disseminate their research
3415 outputs. Institutions looking to comply with this new mandate became
3416 interested in Figshare. Figshare once again diversified its business model,
3417 adding services for institutions.
3418     </p><p>
3419       Figshare now offers a range of fee-based services to institutions, including
3420 their own minibranded Figshare space (called Figshare for Institutions) that
3421 securely hosts research data of institutions in the cloud. Services include
3422 not just hosting but data metrics, data dissemination, and user-group
3423 administration.  Figshare’s workflow, and the services they offer for
3424 institutions, take into account the needs of librarians and administrators,
3425 as well as of the researchers.
3426     </p><p>
3427       As with researchers and publishers, Fig-share encouraged institutions to
3428 share their research with CC BY (Attribution) and their data with CC0 (into
3429 the public domain). Funders who require researchers and institutions to use
3430 open licensing believe in the social responsibilities and benefits of making
3431 research accessible to all. Publishing research in this open way has come to
3432 be called open access. But not all funders specify CC BY; some institutions
3433 want to offer their researchers a choice, including less permissive licenses
3434 like CC BY-NC (Attribution-NonCommercial), CC BY-SA
3435 (Attribution-ShareAlike), or CC BY-ND (Attribution-NoDerivs).
3436     </p><p>
3437       For Mark this created a conflict. On the one hand, the principles and
3438 benefits of open science are at the heart of Figshare, and Mark believes CC
3439 BY is the best license for this. On the other hand, institutions were saying
3440 they wouldn’t use Figshare unless it offered a choice in licenses. He
3441 initially refused to offer anything beyond CC0 and CC BY, but after seeing
3442 an open-source CERN project offer all Creative Commons licenses without any
3443 negative repercussions, he decided to follow suit.
3444     </p><p>
3445       Mark is thinking of doing a Figshare study that tracks research
3446 dissemination according to Creative Commons license, and gathering metrics
3447 on views, citations, and downloads. You could see which license generates
3448 the biggest impact. If the data showed that CC BY is more impactful, Mark
3449 believes more and more researchers and institutions will make it their
3450 license of choice.
3451     </p><p>
3452       Figshare has an Application Programming Interface (API) that makes it
3453 possible for data to be pulled from Figshare and used in other
3454 applications. As an example, Mark shared a Figshare data set showing the
3455 journal subscriptions that higher-education institutions in the United
3456 Kingdom paid to ten major publishers.<a href="#ftn.idm1183" class="footnote" name="idm1183"><sup class="footnote">[115]</sup></a>
3457 Figshare’s API enables that data to be pulled into an app developed by a
3458 completely different researcher that converts the data into a visually
3459 interesting graph, which any viewer can alter by changing any of the
3460 variables.<a href="#ftn.idm1186" class="footnote" name="idm1186"><sup class="footnote">[116]</sup></a>
3461     </p><p>
3462       The free version of Figshare has built a community of academics, who through
3463 word of mouth and presentations have promoted and spread awareness of
3464 Figshare. To amplify and reward the community, Figshare established an
3465 Advisor program, providing those who promoted Figshare with hoodies and
3466 T-shirts, early access to new features, and travel expenses when they gave
3467 presentations outside of their area. These Advisors also helped Mark on what
3468 license to use for software code and whether to offer universities an option
3469 of using Creative Commons licenses.
3470     </p><p>
3471       Mark says his success is partly about being in the right place at the right
3472 time. He also believes that the diversification of Figshare’s model over
3473 time has been key to success. Figshare now offers a comprehensive set of
3474 services to researchers, publishers, and institutions.<a href="#ftn.idm1191" class="footnote" name="idm1191"><sup class="footnote">[117]</sup></a> If he had relied solely on revenue from premium
3475 subscriptions, he believes Figshare would have struggled. In Figshare’s
3476 early days, their primary users were early-career and late-career
3477 academics. It has only been because funders mandated open licensing that
3478 Figshare is now being used by the mainstream.
3479     </p><p>
3480       Today Figshare has 26 million–plus page views, 7.5 million–plus downloads,
3481 800,000–plus user uploads, 2 million–plus articles, 500,000-plus
3482 collections, and 5,000–plus projects. Sixty percent of their traffic comes
3483 from Google. A sister company called Altmetric tracks the use of Figshare by
3484 others, including Wikipedia and news sources.
3485     </p><p>
3486       Figshare uses the revenue it generates from the premium subscribers, journal
3487 publishers, and institutions to fund and expand what it can offer to
3488 researchers for free. Figshare has publicly stuck to its principles—keeping
3489 the free service free and requiring the use of CC BY and CC0 from the
3490 start—and from Mark’s perspective, this is why people trust Figshare. Mark
3491 sees new competitors coming forward who are just in it for money. If
3492 Figshare was only in it for the money, they wouldn’t care about offering a
3493 free version. Figshare’s principles and advocacy for openness are a key
3494 differentiator. Going forward, Mark sees Figshare not only as supporting
3495 open access to research but also enabling people to collaborate and make new
3496 discoveries.
3497     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1183" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1183" class="para"><sup class="para">[115] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://figshare.com/articles/Journal_subscription_costs_FOIs_to_UK_universities/1186832" target="_top">http://figshare.com/articles/Journal_subscription_costs_FOIs_to_UK_universities/1186832</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1186" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1186" class="para"><sup class="para">[116] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://retr0.shinyapps.io/journal_costs/?year=2014&amp;inst=19,22,38,42,59,64,80,95,136" target="_top">http://retr0.shinyapps.io/journal_costs/?year=2014&amp;inst=19,22,38,42,59,64,80,95,136</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1191" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1191" class="para"><sup class="para">[117] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://figshare.com/features" target="_top">http://figshare.com/features</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="figure.nz"></a>第 11 章 Figure.NZ</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
3498         Figure.NZ is a nonprofit charity that makes an online data platform designed
3499 to make data reusable and easy to understand.  Founded in 2012 in New
3500 Zealand.
3501       </p><p>
3502           <a class="ulink" href="http://figure.nz" target="_top">http://figure.nz</a>
3503         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: platform providing paid
3504 services to creators, donations, sponsorships
3505       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: May 3, 2016
3506       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Lillian Grace, founder
3507       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
3508     \textit{
3509         Profile written by Paul Stacey
3510       }
3511     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
3512       In the paper Harnessing the Economic and Social Power of Data presented at
3513 the New Zealand Data Futures Forum in 2014,<a href="#ftn.idm1210" class="footnote" name="idm1210"><sup class="footnote">[118]</sup></a> Figure.NZ founder Lillian Grace said there are thousands of
3514 valuable and relevant data sets freely available to us right now, but most
3515 people don’t use them. She used to think this meant people didn’t care about
3516 being informed, but she’s come to see that she was wrong. Almost everyone
3517 wants to be informed about issues that matter—not only to them, but also to
3518 their families, their communities, their businesses, and their country.  But
3519 there’s a big difference between availability and accessibility of
3520 information. Data is spread across thousands of sites and is held within
3521 databases and spreadsheets that require both time and skill to engage
3522 with. To use data when making a decision, you have to know what specific
3523 question to ask, identify a source that has collected the data, and
3524 manipulate complex tools to extract and visualize the information within the
3525 data set.  Lillian established Figure.NZ to make data truly accessible to
3526 all, with a specific focus on New Zealand.
3527     </p><p>
3528       Lillian had the idea for Figure.NZ in February 2012 while working for the
3529 New Zealand Institute, a think tank concerned with improving economic
3530 prosperity, social well-being, environmental quality, and environmental
3531 productivity for New Zealand and New Zealanders. While giving talks to
3532 community and business groups, Lillian realized <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">every single issue we
3533 addressed would have been easier to deal with if more people understood the
3534 basic facts.</span>”</span> But understanding the basic facts sometimes requires
3535 data and research that you often have to pay for.
3536     </p><p>
3537       Lillian began to imagine a website that lifted data up to a visual form that
3538 could be easily understood and freely accessed.  Initially launched as Wiki
3539 New Zealand, the original idea was that people could contribute their data
3540 and visuals via a wiki.  However, few people had graphs that could be used
3541 and shared, and there were no standards or consistency around the data and
3542 the visuals. Realizing the wiki model wasn’t working, Lillian brought the
3543 process of data aggregation, curation, and visual presentation in-house, and
3544 invested in the technology to help automate some of it. Wiki New Zealand
3545 became Figure.NZ, and efforts were reoriented toward providing services to
3546 those wanting to open their data and present it visually.
3547     </p><p>
3548       Here’s how it works. Figure.NZ sources data from other organizations,
3549 including corporations, public repositories, government departments, and
3550 academics. Figure.NZ imports and extracts that data, and then validates and
3551 standardizes it—all with a strong eye on what will be best for users. They
3552 then make the data available in a series of standardized forms, both human-
3553 and machine-readable, with rich metadata about the sources, the licenses,
3554 and data types. Figure.NZ has a chart-designing tool that makes simple bar,
3555 line, and area graphs from any data source.  The graphs are posted to the
3556 Figure.NZ website, and they can also be exported in a variety of formats for
3557 print or online use.  Figure.NZ makes its data and graphs available using
3558 the Attribution (CC BY) license. This allows others to reuse, revise, remix,
3559 and redistribute Figure.NZ data and graphs as long as they give attribution
3560 to the original source and to Figure.NZ.
3561     </p><p>
3562       Lillian characterizes the initial decision to use Creative Commons as
3563 naively fortunate. It was first recommended to her by a colleague. Lillian
3564 spent time looking at what Creative Commons offered and thought it looked
3565 good, was clear, and made common sense. It was easy to use and easy for
3566 others to understand. Over time, she’s come to realize just how fortunate
3567 and important that decision turned out to be. New Zealand’s government has
3568 an open-access and licensing framework called NZGOAL, which provides
3569 guidance for agencies when they release copyrighted and noncopyrighted work
3570 and material.<a href="#ftn.idm1218" class="footnote" name="idm1218"><sup class="footnote">[119]</sup></a> It aims to standardize
3571 the licensing of works with government copyright and how they can be reused,
3572 and it does this with Creative Commons licenses. As a result, 98 percent of
3573 all government-agency data is Creative Commons licensed, fitting in nicely
3574 with Figure.NZ’s decision.
3575     </p><p>
3576       Lillian thinks current ideas of what a business is are relatively new, only
3577 a hundred years old or so. She’s convinced that twenty years from now, we
3578 will see new and different models for business.  Figure.NZ is set up as a
3579 nonprofit charity. It is purpose-driven but also strives to pay people well
3580 and thinks like a business.  Lillian sees the charity-nonprofit status as an
3581 essential element for the mission and purpose of Figure.NZ. She believes
3582 Wikipedia would not work if it were for profit, and similarly, Figure.NZ’s
3583 nonprofit status assures people who have data and people who want to use it
3584 that they can rely on Figure.NZ’s motives. People see them as a trusted
3585 wrangler and source.
3586     </p><p>
3587       Although Figure.NZ is a social enterprise that openly licenses their data
3588 and graphs for everyone to use for free, they have taken care not to be
3589 perceived as a free service all around the table. Lillian believes hundreds
3590 of millions of dollars are spent by the government and organizations to
3591 collect data. However, very little money is spent on taking that data and
3592 making it accessible, understandable, and useful for decision making.
3593 Government uses some of the data for policy, but Lillian believes that it is
3594 underutilized and the potential value is much larger.  Figure.NZ is focused
3595 on solving that problem. They believe a portion of money allocated to
3596 collecting data should go into making sure that data is useful and generates
3597 value. If the government wants citizens to understand why certain decisions
3598 are being made and to be more aware about what the government is doing, why
3599 not transform the data it collects into easily understood visuals? It could
3600 even become a way for a government or any organization to differentiate,
3601 market, and brand itself.
3602     </p><p>
3603       Figure.NZ spends a lot of time seeking to understand the motivations of data
3604 collectors and to identify the channels where it can provide value. Every
3605 part of their business model has been focused on who is going to get value
3606 from the data and visuals.
3607     </p><p>
3608       Figure.NZ has multiple lines of business. They provide commercial services
3609 to organizations that want their data publicly available and want to use
3610 Figure.NZ as their publishing platform. People who want to publish open data
3611 appreciate Figure.NZ’s ability to do it faster, more easily, and better than
3612 they can. Customers are encouraged to help their users find, use, and make
3613 things from the data they make available on Figure.NZ’s website. Customers
3614 control what is released and the license terms (although Figure.NZ
3615 encourages Creative Commons licensing). Figure.NZ also serves customers who
3616 want a specific collection of charts created—for example, for their website
3617 or annual report. Charging the organizations that want to make their data
3618 available enables Figure.NZ to provide their site free to all users, to
3619 truly democratize data.
3620     </p><p>
3621       Lillian notes that the current state of most data is terrible and often not
3622 well understood by the people who have it. This sometimes makes it difficult
3623 for customers and Figure.NZ to figure out what it would cost to import,
3624 standardize, and display that data in a useful way. To deal with this,
3625 Figure.NZ uses <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">high-trust contracts,</span>”</span> where customers allocate
3626 a certain budget to the task that Figure.NZ is then free to draw from, as
3627 long as Figure.NZ frequently reports on what they’ve produced so the
3628 customer can determine the value for money. This strategy has helped build
3629 trust and transparency about the level of effort associated with doing work
3630 that has never been done before.
3631     </p><p>
3632       A second line of business is what Figure.NZ calls partners. ASB Bank and
3633 Statistics New Zealand are partners who back Figure.NZ’s efforts. As one
3634 example, with their support Figure.NZ has been able to create Business
3635 Figures, a special way for businesses to find useful data without having to
3636 know what questions to ask.<a href="#ftn.idm1228" class="footnote" name="idm1228"><sup class="footnote">[120]</sup></a>
3637     </p><p>
3638       Figure.NZ also has patrons.<a href="#ftn.idm1232" class="footnote" name="idm1232"><sup class="footnote">[121]</sup></a> Patrons
3639 donate to topic areas they care about, directly enabling Figure.NZ to get
3640 data together to flesh out those areas. Patrons do not direct what data is
3641 included or excluded.
3642     </p><p>
3643       Figure.NZ also accepts philanthropic donations, which are used to provide
3644 more content, extend technology, and improve services, or are targeted to
3645 fund a specific effort or provide in-kind support.  As a charity, donations
3646 are tax deductible.
3647     </p><p>
3648       Figure.NZ has morphed and grown over time. With data aggregation, curation,
3649 and visualizing services all in-house, Figure.NZ has developed a deep
3650 expertise in taking random styles of data, standardizing it, and making it
3651 useful. Lillian realized that Figure.NZ could easily become a warehouse of
3652 seventy people doing data. But for Lillian, growth isn’t always good. In her
3653 view, bigger often means less effective. Lillian set artificial constraints
3654 on growth, forcing the organization to think differently and be more
3655 efficient. Rather than in-house growth, they are growing and building
3656 external relationships.
3657     </p><p>
3658       Figure.NZ’s website displays visuals and data associated with a wide range
3659 of categories including crime, economy, education, employment, energy,
3660 environment, health, information and communications technology, industry,
3661 tourism, and many others. A search function helps users find tables and
3662 graphs. Figure.NZ does not provide analysis or interpretation of the data or
3663 visuals.  Their goal is to teach people how to think, not think for them.
3664 Figure.NZ wants to create intuitive experiences, not user manuals.
3665     </p><p>
3666       Figure.NZ believes data and visuals should be useful. They provide their
3667 customers with a data collection template and teach them why it’s important
3668 and how to use it. They’ve begun putting more emphasis on tracking what
3669 users of their website want. They also get requests from social media and
3670 through email for them to share data for a specific topic—for example, can
3671 you share data for water quality? If they have the data, they respond
3672 quickly; if they don’t, they try and identify the organizations that would
3673 have that data and forge a relationship so they can be included on
3674 Figure.NZ’s site. Overall, Figure.NZ is seeking to provide a place for
3675 people to be curious about, access, and interpret data on topics they are
3676 interested in.
3677     </p><p>
3678       Lillian has a deep and profound vision for Figure.NZ that goes well beyond
3679 simply providing open-data services. She says things are different now. "We
3680 used to live in a world where it was really hard to share information
3681 widely. And in that world, the best future was created by having a few great
3682 leaders who essentially had access to the information and made decisions on
3683 behalf of others, whether it was on behalf of a country or companies.
3684     </p><p>
3685       "But now we live in a world where it’s really easy to share information
3686 widely and also to communicate widely. In the world we live in now, the best
3687 future is the one where everyone can make well-informed decisions.
3688     </p><p>
3689       "The use of numbers and data as a way of making well-informed decisions is
3690 one of the areas where there is the biggest gaps. We don’t really use
3691 numbers as a part of our thinking and part of our understanding yet.
3692     </p><p>
3693       "Part of the reason is the way data is spread across hundreds of sites. In
3694 addition, for the most part, deep thinking based on data is constrained to
3695 experts because most people don’t have data literacy. There once was a time
3696 when many citizens in society couldn’t read or write. However, as a society,
3697 we’ve now come to believe that reading and writing skills should be
3698 something all citizens have. We haven’t yet adopted a similar belief around
3699 numbers and data literacy. We largely still believe that only a few
3700 specially trained people can analyze and think with numbers.
3701     </p><p>
3702       "Figure.NZ may be the first organization to assert that everyone can use
3703 numbers in their thinking, and it’s built a technological platform along
3704 with trust and a network of relationships to make that possible. What you
3705 can see on Figure.NZ are tens of thousands of graphs, maps, and data.
3706     </p><p>
3707         <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Figure.NZ sees this as a new kind of alphabet that can help people
3708 analyze what they see around them. A way to be thoughtful and informed about
3709 society. A means of engaging in conversation and shaping decision making
3710 that transcends personal experience.  The long-term value and impact is
3711 almost impossible to measure, but the goal is to help citizens gain
3712 understanding and work together in more informed ways to shape the
3713 future.</span>”</span>
3714       </p><p>
3715       Lillian sees Figure.NZ’s model as having global potential. But for now,
3716 their focus is completely on making Figure.NZ work in New Zealand and to get
3717 the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">network effect</span>”</span>— users dramatically increasing value for
3718 themselves and for others through use of their service. Creative Commons is
3719 core to making the network effect possible.
3720     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1210" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1210" class="para"><sup class="para">[118] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.nzdatafutures.org.nz/sites/default/files/NZDFF_harness-the-power.pdf" target="_top">http://www.nzdatafutures.org.nz/sites/default/files/NZDFF_harness-the-power.pdf</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1218" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1218" class="para"><sup class="para">[119] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.ict.govt.nz/guidance-and-resources/open-government/new-zealand-government-open-access-and-licensing-nzgoal-framework/" target="_top">http://www.ict.govt.nz/guidance-and-resources/open-government/new-zealand-government-open-access-and-licensing-nzgoal-framework/</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1228" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1228" class="para"><sup class="para">[120] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://figure.nz/business/" target="_top">http://figure.nz/business/</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1232" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1232" class="para"><sup class="para">[121] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://figure.nz/patrons/" target="_top">http://figure.nz/patrons/</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="knowledge-unlatched"></a>第 12 章 Knowledge Unlatched</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
3721         Knowledge Unlatched is a not-for-profit community interest company that
3722 brings libraries together to pool funds to publish open-access
3723 books. Founded in 2012 in the UK.
3724       </p><p>
3725           <a class="ulink" href="http://knowledgeunlatched.org" target="_top">http://knowledgeunlatched.org</a>
3726         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: crowdfunding (specialized)
3727       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 26, 2016
3728       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Frances Pinter, founder
3729       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
3730     \textit{
3731         Profile written by Paul Stacey
3732       }
3733     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
3734       The serial entrepreneur Dr. Frances Pinter has been at the forefront of
3735 innovation in the publishing industry for nearly forty years. She founded
3736 the UK-based Knowledge Unlatched with a mission to enable open access to
3737 scholarly books. For Frances, the current scholarly- book-publishing system
3738 is not working for anyone, and especially not for monographs in the
3739 humanities and social sciences. Knowledge Unlatched is committed to changing
3740 this and has been working with libraries to create a sustainable alternative
3741 model for publishing scholarly books, sharing the cost of making monographs
3742 (released under a Creative Commons license)  and savings costs over the long
3743 term. Since its launch, Knowledge Unlatched has received several awards,
3744 including the IFLA/Brill Open Access award in 2014 and a Curtin University
3745 Commercial Innovation Award for Innovation in Education in 2015.
3746     </p><p>
3747       Dr. Pinter has been in academic publishing most of her career.  About ten
3748 years ago, she became acquainted with the Creative Commons founder Lawrence
3749 Lessig and got interested in Creative Commons as a tool for both protecting
3750 content online and distributing it free to users.
3751     </p><p>
3752       Not long after, she ran a project in Africa convincing publishers in Uganda
3753 and South Africa to put some of their content online for free using a
3754 Creative Commons license and to see what happened to print sales. Sales went
3755 up, not down.
3756     </p><p>
3757       In 2008, Bloomsbury Academic, a new imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing in the
3758 United Kingdom, appointed her its founding publisher in London. As part of
3759 the launch, Frances convinced Bloomsbury to differentiate themselves by
3760 putting out monographs for free online under a Creative Commons license
3761 (BY-NC or BY-NC-ND, i.e., Attribution-NonCommercial or
3762 Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs). This was seen as risky, as the biggest
3763 cost for publishers is getting a book to the stage where it can be
3764 printed. If everyone read the online book for free, there would be no
3765 print-book sales at all, and the costs associated with getting the book to
3766 print would be lost.  Surprisingly, Bloomsbury found that sales of the print
3767 versions of these books were 10 to 20 percent higher than normal. Frances
3768 found it intriguing that the Creative Commons–licensed free online book acts
3769 as a marketing vehicle for the print format.
3770     </p><p>
3771       Frances began to look at customer interest in the three forms of the book:
3772 1) the Creative Commons–licensed free online book in PDF form, 2) the
3773 printed book, and 3) a digital version of the book on an aggregator platform
3774 with enhanced features. She thought of this as the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">ice cream
3775 model</span>”</span>: the free PDF was vanilla ice cream, the printed book was an
3776 ice cream cone, and the enhanced e-book was an ice cream sundae.
3777     </p><p>
3778       After a while, Frances had an epiphany—what if there was a way to get
3779 libraries to underwrite the costs of making these books up until they’re
3780 ready be printed, in other words, cover the fixed costs of getting to the
3781 first digital copy? Then you could either bring down the cost of the printed
3782 book, or do a whole bunch of interesting things with the printed book and
3783 e-book—the ice cream cone or sundae part of the model.
3784     </p><p>
3785       This idea is similar to the article-processing charge some open-access
3786 journals charge researchers to cover publishing costs.  Frances began to
3787 imagine a coalition of libraries paying for the prepress costs—a
3788 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">book-processing charge</span>”</span>—and providing everyone in the world
3789 with an open-access version of the books released under a Creative Commons
3790 license.
3791     </p><p>
3792       This idea really took hold in her mind. She didn’t really have a name for it
3793 but began talking about it and making presentations to see if there was
3794 interest. The more she talked about it, the more people agreed it had
3795 appeal. She offered a bottle of champagne to anyone who could come up with a
3796 good name for the idea. Her husband came up with Knowledge Unlatched, and
3797 after two years of generating interest, she decided to move forward and
3798 launch a community interest company (a UK term for not-for-profit social
3799 enterprises) in 2012.
3800     </p><p>
3801       She describes the business model in a paper called Knowledge Unlatched:
3802 Toward an Open and Networked Future for Academic Publishing:
3803     </p><div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist compact" type="1"><li class="listitem"><p>
3804           Publishers offer titles for sale reflecting origination costs only via
3805 Knowledge Unlatched.
3806         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
3807           Individual libraries select titles either as individual titles or as
3808 collections (as they do from library suppliers now).
3809         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
3810           Their selections are sent to Knowledge Unlatched specifying the titles to be
3811 purchased at the stated price(s).
3812         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
3813           The price, called a Title Fee (set by publishers and negotiated by Knowledge
3814 Unlatched), is paid to publishers to cover the fixed costs of publishing
3815 each of the titles that were selected by a minimum number of libraries to
3816 cover the Title Fee.
3817         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
3818           Publishers make the selected titles available Open Access (on a Creative
3819 Commons or similar open license) and are then paid the Title Fee which is
3820 the total collected from the libraries.
3821         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
3822           Publishers make print copies, e-Pub, and other digital versions of selected
3823 titles available to member libraries at a discount that reflects their
3824 contribution to the Title Fee and incentivizes membership.<a href="#ftn.idm1285" class="footnote" name="idm1285"><sup class="footnote">[122]</sup></a>
3825         </p></li></ol></div><p>
3826       The first round of this model resulted in a collection of twenty-eight
3827 current titles from thirteen recognized scholarly publishers being
3828 unlatched. The target was to have two hundred libraries participate. The
3829 cost of the package per library was capped at $1,680, which was an average
3830 price of sixty dollars per book, but in the end they had nearly three
3831 hundred libraries sharing the costs, and the price per book came in at just
3832 under forty-three dollars.
3833     </p><p>
3834       The open-access, Creative Commons versions of these twenty-eight books are
3835 still available online.<a href="#ftn.idm1290" class="footnote" name="idm1290"><sup class="footnote">[123]</sup></a> Most books have
3836 been licensed with CC BY-NC or CC BY-NC-ND. Authors are the copyright
3837 holder, not the publisher, and negotiate choice of license as part of the
3838 publishing agreement.  Frances has found that most authors want to retain
3839 control over the commercial and remix use of their work. Publishers list the
3840 book in their catalogs, and the noncommercial restriction in the Creative
3841 Commons license ensures authors continue to get royalties on sales of
3842 physical copies.
3843     </p><p>
3844       There are three cost variables to consider for each round: the overall cost
3845 incurred by the publishers, total cost for each library to acquire all the
3846 books, and the individual price per book. The fee publishers charge for each
3847 title is a fixed charge, and Knowledge Unlatched calculates the total amount
3848 for all the books being unlatched at a time. The cost of an order for each
3849 library is capped at a maximum based on a minimum number of libraries
3850 participating. If the number of participating libraries exceeds the minimum,
3851 then the cost of the order and the price per book go down for each library.
3852     </p><p>
3853       The second round, recently completed, unlatched seventy-eight books from
3854 twenty-six publishers. For this round, Frances was experimenting with the
3855 size and shape of the offerings. Books were being bundled into eight small
3856 packages separated by subject (including Anthropology, History, Literature,
3857 Media and Communications, and Politics), of around ten books per package.
3858 Three hundred libraries around the world have to commit to at least six of
3859 the eight packages to enable unlatching. The average cost per book was just
3860 under fifty dollars. The unlatching process took roughly ten months. It
3861 started with a call to publishers for titles, followed by having a library
3862 task force select the titles, getting authors’ permissions, getting the
3863 libraries to pledge, billing the libraries, and finally, unlatching.
3864     </p><p>
3865       The longest part of the whole process is getting libraries to pledge and
3866 commit funds. It takes about five months, as library buy-in has to fit
3867 within acquisition cycles, budget cycles, and library-committee meetings.
3868     </p><p>
3869       Knowledge Unlatched informs and recruits libraries through social media,
3870 mailing lists, listservs, and library associations. Of the three hundred
3871 libraries that participated in the first round, 80 percent are also
3872 participating in the second round, and there are an additional eighty new
3873 libraries taking part. Knowledge Unlatched is also working not just with
3874 individual libraries but also library consortia, which has been getting even
3875 more libraries involved.
3876     </p><p>
3877       Knowledge Unlatched is scaling up, offering 150 new titles in the second
3878 half of 2016. It will also offer backlist titles, and in 2017 will start to
3879 make journals open access too.
3880     </p><p>
3881       Knowledge Unlatched deliberately chose monographs as the initial type of
3882 book to unlatch. Monographs are foundational and important, but also
3883 problematic to keep going in the standard closed publishing model.
3884     </p><p>
3885       The cost for the publisher to get to a first digital copy of a monograph is
3886 $5,000 to $50,000. A good one costs in the $10,000 to $15,000
3887 range. Monographs typically don’t sell a lot of copies. A publisher who in
3888 the past sold three thousand copies now typically sells only three
3889 hundred. That makes unlatching monographs a low risk for publishers. For the
3890 first round, it took five months to get thirteen publishers. For the second
3891 round, it took one month to get twenty-six.
3892     </p><p>
3893       Authors don’t generally make a lot of royalties from monographs.  Royalties
3894 range from zero dollars to 5 to 10 percent of receipts.  The value to the
3895 author is the awareness it brings to them; when their book is being read, it
3896 increases their reputation. Open access through unlatching generates many
3897 more downloads and therefore awareness. (On the Knowledge Unlatched website,
3898 you can find interviews with the twenty-eight round-one authors describing
3899 their experience and the benefits of taking part.)<a href="#ftn.idm1301" class="footnote" name="idm1301"><sup class="footnote">[124]</sup></a>
3900     </p><p>
3901       Library budgets are constantly being squeezed, partly due to the inflation
3902 of journal subscriptions. But even without budget constraints, academic
3903 libraries are moving away from buying physical copies. An academic library
3904 catalog entry is typically a URL to wherever the book is hosted. Or if they
3905 have enough electronic storage space, they may download the digital file
3906 into their digital repository. Only secondarily do they consider getting a
3907 print book, and if they do, they buy it separately from the digital version.
3908     </p><p>
3909       Knowledge Unlatched offers libraries a compelling economic argument. Many of
3910 the participating libraries would have bought a copy of the monograph
3911 anyway, but instead of paying $95 for a print copy or $150 for a digital
3912 multiple-use copy, they pay $50 to unlatch. It costs them less, and it opens
3913 the book to not just the participating libraries, but to the world.
3914     </p><p>
3915       Not only do the economics make sense, but there is very strong alignment
3916 with library mandates. The participating libraries pay less than they would
3917 have in the closed model, and the open-access book is available to all
3918 libraries. While this means nonparticipating libraries could be seen as free
3919 riders, in the library world, wealthy libraries are used to paying more than
3920 poor libraries and accept that part of their money should be spent to
3921 support open access. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Free ride</span>”</span> is more like community
3922 responsibility. By the end of March 2016, the round-one books had been
3923 downloaded nearly eighty thousand times in 175 countries.
3924     </p><p>
3925       For publishers, authors, and librarians, the Knowledge Unlatched model for
3926 monographs is a win-win-win.
3927     </p><p>
3928       In the first round, Knowledge Unlatched’s overheads were covered by
3929 grants. In the second round, they aim to demonstrate the model is
3930 sustainable. Libraries and publishers will each pay a 7.5 percent service
3931 charge that will go toward Knowledge Unlatched’s running costs. With plans
3932 to scale up in future rounds, Frances figures they can fully recover costs
3933 when they are unlatching two hundred books at a time. Moving forward,
3934 Knowledge Unlatched is making investments in technology and
3935 processes. Future plans include unlatching journals and older books.
3936     </p><p>
3937       Frances believes that Knowledge Unlatched is tapping into new ways of
3938 valuing academic content. It’s about considering how many people can find,
3939 access, and use your content without pay barriers. Knowledge Unlatched taps
3940 into the new possibilities and behaviors of the digital world. In the
3941 Knowledge Unlatched model, the content-creation process is exactly the same
3942 as it always has been, but the economics are different. For Frances,
3943 Knowledge Unlatched is connected to the past but moving into the future, an
3944 evolution rather than a revolution.
3945     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1285" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1285" class="para"><sup class="para">[122] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.pinter.org.uk/pdfs/Toward_an_Open.pdf" target="_top">http://www.pinter.org.uk/pdfs/Toward_an_Open.pdf</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1290" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1290" class="para"><sup class="para">[123] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://collections.knowledgeunlatched.org/collection-availability-1/" target="_top">http://collections.knowledgeunlatched.org/collection-availability-1/</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1301" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1301" class="para"><sup class="para">[124] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.knowledgeunlatched.org/featured-authors-section/" target="_top">http://www.knowledgeunlatched.org/featured-authors-section/</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="lumen-learning"></a>第 13 章 Lumen Learning</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
3946         Lumen Learning is a for-profit company helping educational institutions use
3947 open educational resources (OER). Founded in 2013 in the U.S.
3948       </p><p>
3949           <a class="ulink" href="http://lumenlearning.com" target="_top">http://lumenlearning.com</a>
3950         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for custom
3951 services, grant funding
3952       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: December 21, 2015
3953       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: David Wiley and Kim Thanos,
3954 cofounders
3955       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
3956     \textit{
3957         Profile written by Paul Stacey
3958       }
3959     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
3960       Cofounded by open education visionary Dr. David Wiley and
3961 education-technology strategist Kim Thanos, Lumen Learning is dedicated to
3962 improving student success, bringing new ideas to pedagogy, and making
3963 education more affordable by facilitating adoption of open educational
3964 resources. In 2012, David and Kim partnered on a grant-funded project called
3965 the Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative.<a href="#ftn.idm1325" class="footnote" name="idm1325"><sup class="footnote">[125]</sup></a> It involved a set of fully open general-education courses across
3966 eight colleges predominantly serving at-risk students, with goals to
3967 dramatically reduce textbook costs and collaborate to improve the courses to
3968 help students succeed. David and Kim exceeded those goals: the cost of the
3969 required textbooks, replaced with OER, decreased to zero dollars, and
3970 average student-success rates improved by 5 to 10 percent when compared with
3971 previous years. After a second round of funding, a total of more than
3972 twenty-five institutions participated in and benefited from this project. It
3973 was career changing for David and Kim to see the impact this initiative had
3974 on low-income students. David and Kim sought further funding from the Bill
3975 and Melinda Gates Foundation, who asked them to define a plan to scale their
3976 work in a financially sustainable way. That is when they decided to create
3977 Lumen Learning.
3978     </p><p>
3979       David and Kim went back and forth on whether it should be a nonprofit or
3980 for- profit. A nonprofit would make it a more comfortable fit with the
3981 education sector but meant they’d be constantly fund-raising and seeking
3982 grants from philanthropies.  Also, grants usually require money to be used
3983 in certain ways for specific deliverables. If you learn things along the way
3984 that change how you think the grant money should be used, there often isn’t
3985 a lot of flexibility to do so.
3986     </p><p>
3987       But as a for-profit, they’d have to convince educational institutions to pay
3988 for what Lumen had to offer. On the positive side, they’d have more control
3989 over what to do with the revenue and investment money; they could make
3990 decisions to invest the funds or use them differently based on the situation
3991 and shifting opportunities. In the end, they chose the for-profit status,
3992 with its different model for and approach to sustainability.
3993     </p><p>
3994       Right from the start, David and Kim positioned Lumen Learning as a way to
3995 help institutions engage in open educational resources, or OER. OER are
3996 teaching, learning, and research materials, in all different media, that
3997 reside in the public domain or are released under an open license that
3998 permits free use and repurposing by others.
3999     </p><p>
4000       Originally, Lumen did custom contracts for each institution. This was
4001 complicated and challenging to manage. However, through that process
4002 patterns emerged which allowed them to generalize a set of approaches and
4003 offerings. Today they don’t customize as much as they used to, and instead
4004 they tend to work with customers who can use their off-the-shelf
4005 options. Lumen finds that institutions and faculty are generally very good
4006 at seeing the value Lumen brings and are willing to pay for it. Serving
4007 disadvantaged learner populations has led Lumen to be very pragmatic; they
4008 describe what they offer in quantitative terms—with facts and figures—and in
4009 a way that is very student-focused. Lumen Learning helps colleges and
4010 universities—
4011     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4012           replace expensive textbooks in high-enrollment courses with OER;
4013         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4014           provide enrolled students day one access to Lumen’s fully customizable OER
4015 course materials through the institution’s learning-management system;
4016         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4017           measure improvements in student success with metrics like passing rates,
4018 persistence, and course completion; and
4019         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4020           collaborate with faculty to make ongoing improvements to OER based on
4021 student success research.
4022         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4023       Lumen has developed a suite of open, Creative Commons–licensed courseware in
4024 more than sixty-five subjects. All courses are freely and publicly available
4025 right off their website. They can be copied and used by others as long as
4026 they provide attribution to Lumen Learning following the terms of the
4027 Creative Commons license.
4028     </p><p>
4029       Then there are three types of bundled services that cost money.  One option,
4030 which Lumen calls Candela courseware, offers integration with the
4031 institution’s learning-management system, technical and pedagogical support,
4032 and tracking of effectiveness.  Candela courseware costs institutions ten
4033 dollars per enrolled student.
4034     </p><p>
4035       A second option is Waymaker, which offers the services of Candela but adds
4036 personalized learning technologies, such as study plans, automated messages,
4037 and assessments, and helps instructors find and support the students who
4038 need it most. Waymaker courses cost twenty-five dollars per enrolled
4039 student.
4040     </p><p>
4041       The third and emerging line of business for Lumen is providing guidance and
4042 support for institutions and state systems that are pursuing the development
4043 of complete OER degrees. Often called Z-Degrees, these programs eliminate
4044 textbook costs for students in all courses that make up the degree (both
4045 required and elective)  by replacing commercial textbooks and other
4046 expensive resources with OER.
4047     </p><p>
4048       Lumen generates revenue by charging for their value-added tools and services
4049 on top of their free courses, just as solar-power companies provide the
4050 tools and services that help people use a free resource—sunlight. And
4051 Lumen’s business model focuses on getting the institutions to pay, not the
4052 students. With projects they did prior to Lumen, David and Kim learned that
4053 students who have access to all course materials from day one have greater
4054 success. If students had to pay, Lumen would have to restrict access to
4055 those who paid. Right from the start, their stance was that they would not
4056 put their content behind a paywall. Lumen invests zero dollars in
4057 technologies and processes for restricting access—no digital rights
4058 management, no time bombs. While this has been a challenge from a
4059 business-model perspective, from an open-access perspective, it has
4060 generated immense goodwill in the community.
4061     </p><p>
4062       In most cases, development of their courses is funded by the institution
4063 Lumen has a contract with. When creating new courses, Lumen typically works
4064 with the faculty who are teaching the new course. They’re often part of the
4065 institution paying Lumen, but sometimes Lumen has to expand the team and
4066 contract faculty from other institutions. First, the faculty identifies all
4067 of the course’s learning outcomes. Lumen then searches for, aggregates, and
4068 curates the best OER they can find that addresses those learning needs,
4069 which the faculty reviews.
4070     </p><p>
4071       Sometimes faculty like the existing OER but not the way it is presented. The
4072 open licensing of existing OER allows Lumen to pick and choose from images,
4073 videos, and other media to adapt and customize the course. Lumen creates new
4074 content as they discover gaps in existing OER. Test-bank items and feedback
4075 for students on their progress are areas where new content is frequently
4076 needed.  Once a course is created, Lumen puts it on their platform with all
4077 the attributions and links to the original sources intact, and any of
4078 Lumen’s new content is given an Attribution (CC BY) license.
4079     </p><p>
4080       Using only OER made them experience firsthand how complex it could be to mix
4081 differently licensed work together. A common strategy with OER is to place
4082 the Creative Commons license and attribution information in the website’s
4083 footer, which stays the same for all pages. This doesn’t quite work,
4084 however, when mixing different OER together.
4085     </p><p>
4086       Remixing OER often results in multiple attributions on every page of every
4087 course—text from one place, images from another, and videos from yet
4088 another. Some are licensed as Attribution (CC BY), others as
4089 Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA). If this information is put within the
4090 text of the course, faculty members sometimes try to edit it and students
4091 find it a distraction. Lumen dealt with this challenge by capturing the
4092 license and attribution information as metadata, and getting it to show up
4093 at the end of each page.
4094     </p><p>
4095       Lumen’s commitment to open licensing and helping low-income students has led
4096 to strong relationships with institutions, open-education enthusiasts, and
4097 grant funders. People in their network generously increase the visibility of
4098 Lumen through presentations, word of mouth, and referrals. Sometimes the
4099 number of general inquiries exceed Lumen’s sales capacity.
4100     </p><p>
4101       To manage demand and ensure the success of projects, their strategy is to be
4102 proactive and focus on what’s going on in higher education in different
4103 regions of the United States, watching out for things happening at the
4104 system level in a way that fits with what Lumen offers. A great example is
4105 the Virginia community college system, which is building out
4106 Z-Degrees. David and Kim say there are nine other U.S. states with similar
4107 system-level activity where Lumen is strategically focusing its
4108 efforts. Where there are projects that would require a lot of resources on
4109 Lumen’s part, they prioritize the ones that would impact the largest number
4110 of students.
4111     </p><p>
4112       As a business, Lumen is committed to openness. There are two core
4113 nonnegotiables: Lumen’s use of CC BY, the most permissive of the Creative
4114 Commons licenses, for all the materials it creates; and day-one access for
4115 students. Having clear nonnegotiables allows them to then engage with the
4116 education community to solve for other challenges and work with institutions
4117 to identify new business models that achieve institution goals, while
4118 keeping Lumen healthy.
4119     </p><p>
4120       Openness also means that Lumen’s OER must necessarily be nonexclusive and
4121 nonrivalrous. This represents several big challenges for the business model:
4122 Why should you invest in creating something that people will be reluctant to
4123 pay for? How do you ensure that the investment the diverse education
4124 community makes in OER is not exploited? Lumen thinks we all need to be
4125 clear about how we are benefiting from and contributing to the open
4126 community.
4127     </p><p>
4128       In the OER sector, there are examples of corporations, and even
4129 institutions, acting as free riders. Some simply take and use open resources
4130 without paying anything or contributing anything back.  Others give back the
4131 minimum amount so they can save face.  Sustainability will require those
4132 using open resources to give back an amount that seems fair or even give
4133 back something that is generous.
4134     </p><p>
4135       Lumen does track institutions accessing and using their free content. They
4136 proactively contact those institutions, with an estimate of how much their
4137 students are saving and encouraging them to switch to a paid model. Lumen
4138 explains the advantages of the paid model: a more interactive relationship
4139 with Lumen; integration with the institution’s learning-management system; a
4140 guarantee of support for faculty and students; and future sustainability
4141 with funding supporting the evolution and improvement of the OER they are
4142 using.
4143     </p><p>
4144       Lumen works hard to be a good corporate citizen in the OER community. For
4145 David and Kim, a good corporate citizen gives more than they take, adds
4146 unique value, and is very transparent about what they are taking from
4147 community, what they are giving back, and what they are monetizing. Lumen
4148 believes these are the building blocks of a sustainable model and strives
4149 for a correct balance of all these factors.
4150     </p><p>
4151       Licensing all the content they produce with CC BY is a key part of giving
4152 more value than they take. They’ve also worked hard at finding the right
4153 structure for their value-add and how to package it in a way that is
4154 understandable and repeatable.
4155     </p><p>
4156       As of the fall 2016 term, Lumen had eighty-six different open courses,
4157 working relationships with ninety-two institutions, and more than
4158 seventy-five thousand student enrollments. Lumen received early start-up
4159 funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Hewlett Foundation,
4160 and the Shuttleworth Foundation. Since then, Lumen has also attracted
4161 investment funding. Over the last three years, Lumen has been roughly 60
4162 percent grant funded, 20 percent revenue earned, and 20 percent funded with
4163 angel capital. Going forward, their strategy is to replace grant funding
4164 with revenue.
4165     </p><p>
4166       In creating Lumen Learning, David and Kim say they’ve landed on solutions
4167 they never imagined, and there is still a lot of learning taking place. For
4168 them, open business models are an emerging field where we are all learning
4169 through sharing. Their biggest recommendations for others wanting to pursue
4170 the open model are to make your commitment to open resources public, let
4171 people know where you stand, and don’t back away from it. It really is about
4172 trust.
4173     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1325" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1325" class="para"><sup class="para">[125] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://lumenlearning.com/innovative-projects/" target="_top">http://lumenlearning.com/innovative-projects/</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="jonathan-mann"></a>第 14 章 Jonathan Mann</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
4174         Jonathan Mann is a singer and songwriter who is most well known as the
4175 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Song A Day</span>”</span> guy. Based in the U.S.
4176       </p><p><a class="ulink" href="http://jonathanmann.net" target="_top">http://jonathanmann.net</a> and <a class="ulink" href="http://jonathanmann.bandcamp.com" target="_top">http://jonathanmann.bandcamp.com</a>
4177       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for custom
4178 services, pay-what-you-want, crowdfunding (subscription-based), charging for
4179 in-person version (speaking engagements and musical performances)
4180       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 22, 2016
4181       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
4182     \textit{
4183         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
4184       }
4185     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
4186       Jonathan Mann thinks of his business model as
4187 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">hustling</span>”</span>—seizing nearly every opportunity he sees to make
4188 money. The bulk of his income comes from writing songs under commission for
4189 people and companies, but he has a wide variety of income sources. He has
4190 supporters on the crowdfunding site Patreon. He gets advertising revenue
4191 from YouTube and Bandcamp, where he posts all of his music. He gives paid
4192 speaking engagements about creativity and motivation. He has been hired by
4193 major conferences to write songs summarizing what speakers have said in the
4194 conference sessions.
4195     </p><p>
4196       His entrepreneurial spirit is coupled with a willingness to take action
4197 quickly. A perfect illustration of his ability to act fast happened in 2010,
4198 when he read that Apple was having a conference the following day to address
4199 a snafu related to the iPhone 4. He decided to write and post a song about
4200 the iPhone 4 that day, and the next day he got a call from the public
4201 relations people at Apple wanting to use and promote his video at the Apple
4202 conference. The song then went viral, and the experience landed him in Time
4203 magazine.
4204     </p><p>
4205       Jonathan’s successful <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">hustling</span>”</span> is also about old-fashioned
4206 persistence. He is currently in his eighth straight year of writing one song
4207 each day. He holds the Guinness World Record for consecutive daily
4208 songwriting, and he is widely known as the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">song-a-day guy.</span>”</span>
4209     </p><p>
4210       He fell into this role by, naturally, seizing a random opportunity a friend
4211 alerted him to seven years ago—an event called Fun-A-Day, where people are
4212 supposed to create a piece of art every day for thirty-one days straight. He
4213 was in need of a new project, so he decided to give it a try by writing and
4214 posting a song each day.  He added a video component to the songs because he
4215 knew people were more likely to watch video online than simply listening to
4216 audio files.
4217     </p><p>
4218       He had a really good time doing the thirty-one-day challenge, so he decided
4219 to see if he could continue it for one year. He never stopped. He has
4220 written and posted a new song literally every day, seven days a week, since
4221 he began the project in 2009. When he isn’t writing songs that he is hired
4222 to write by clients, he writes songs about whatever is on his mind that
4223 day. His songs are catchy and mostly lighthearted, but they often contain at
4224 least an undercurrent of a deeper theme or meaning. Occasionally, they are
4225 extremely personal, like the song he cowrote with his exgirlfriend
4226 announcing their breakup. Rain or shine, in sickness or health, Jonathan
4227 posts and writes a song every day. If he is on a flight or otherwise
4228 incapable of getting Internet access in time to meet the deadline, he will
4229 prepare ahead and have someone else post the song for him.
4230     </p><p>
4231       Over time, the song-a-day gig became the basis of his livelihood.  In the
4232 beginning, he made money one of two ways. The first was by entering a wide
4233 variety of contests and winning a handful. The second was by having the
4234 occasional song and video go some varying degree of viral, which would bring
4235 more eyeballs and mean that there were more people wanting him to write
4236 songs for them. Today he earns most of his money this way.
4237     </p><p>
4238       His website explains his gig as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">taking any message, from the super
4239 simple to the totally complicated, and conveying that message through a
4240 heartfelt, fun and quirky song.</span>”</span> He charges $500 to create a produced
4241 song and $300 for an acoustic song. He has been hired for product launches,
4242 weddings, conferences, and even Kickstarter campaigns like the one that
4243 funded the production of this book.
4244     </p><p>
4245       Jonathan can’t recall when exactly he first learned about Creative Commons,
4246 but he began applying CC licenses to his songs and videos as soon as he
4247 discovered the option. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">CC seems like such a no-brainer,</span>”</span>
4248 Jonathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I don’t understand how anything else would make
4249 sense. It seems like such an obvious thing that you would want your work to
4250 be able to be shared.</span>”</span>
4251     </p><p>
4252       His songs are essentially marketing for his services, so obviously the
4253 further his songs spread, the better. Using CC licenses helps grease the
4254 wheels, letting people know that Jonathan allows and encourages them to
4255 copy, interact with, and remix his music.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If you let someone cover
4256 your song or remix it or use parts of it, that’s how music is supposed to
4257 work,</span>”</span> Jonathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">That is how music has worked since the
4258 beginning of time. Our me-me, mine-mine culture has undermined that.</span>”</span>
4259     </p><p>
4260       There are some people who cover his songs fairly regularly, and he would
4261 never shut that down. But he acknowledges there is a lot more he could do to
4262 build community. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is all of this conventional wisdom about how
4263 to build an audience online, and I generally think I don’t do any of
4264 that,</span>”</span> Jonathan said.
4265     </p><p>
4266       He does have a fan community he cultivates on Bandcamp, but it isn’t his
4267 major focus. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I do have a core audience that has stuck around for a
4268 really long time, some even longer than I’ve been doing song-a-day,</span>”</span>
4269 he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is also a transitional aspect that drop in and get
4270 what they need and then move on.</span>”</span> Focusing less on community building
4271 than other artists makes sense given Jonathan’s primary income source of
4272 writing custom songs for clients.
4273     </p><p>
4274       Jonathan recognizes what comes naturally to him and leverages those
4275 skills. Through the practice of daily songwriting, he realized he has a gift
4276 for distilling complicated subjects into simple concepts and putting them to
4277 music. In his song <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">How to Choose a Master Password,</span>”</span> Jonathan
4278 explained the process of creating a secure password in a silly, simple
4279 song. He was hired to write the song by a client who handed him a long
4280 technical blog post from which to draw the information. Like a good (and
4281 rare) journalist, he translated the technical concepts into something
4282 understandable.
4283     </p><p>
4284       When he is hired by a client to write a song, he first asks them to send a
4285 list of talking points and other information they want to include in the
4286 song. He puts all of that into a text file and starts moving things around,
4287 cutting and pasting until the message starts to come together. The first
4288 thing he tries to do is grok the core message and develop the chorus. Then
4289 he looks for connections or parts he can make rhyme. The entire process
4290 really does resemble good journalism, but of course the final product of his
4291 work is a song rather than news. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is something about being
4292 challenged and forced to take information that doesn’t seem like it should
4293 be sung about or doesn’t seem like it lends itself to a song,</span>”</span> he
4294 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I find that creative challenge really satisfying. I enjoy
4295 getting lost in that process.</span>”</span>
4296     </p><p>
4297       Jonathan admits that in an ideal world, he would exclusively write the music
4298 he wanted to write, rather than what clients hire him to write. But his
4299 business model is about capitalizing on his strengths as a songwriter, and
4300 he has found a way to keep it interesting for himself.
4301     </p><p>
4302       Jonathan uses nearly every tool possible to make money from his art, but he
4303 does have lines he won’t cross. He won’t write songs about things he
4304 fundamentally does not believe in, and there are times he has turned down
4305 jobs on principle. He also won’t stray too much from his natural
4306 style. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">My style is silly, so I can’t really accommodate people who
4307 want something super serious,</span>”</span> Jonathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I do what I do
4308 very easily, and it’s part of who I am.</span>”</span> Jonathan hasn’t gotten into
4309 writing commercials for the same reasons; he is best at using his own unique
4310 style rather than mimicking others.
4311     </p><p>
4312       Jonathan’s song-a-day commitment exemplifies the power of habit and
4313 grit. Conventional wisdom about creative productivity, including advice in
4314 books like the best-seller The Creative Habit by Twyla Tharp, routinely
4315 emphasizes the importance of ritual and action. No amount of planning can
4316 replace the value of simple practice and just doing. Jonathan Mann’s work is
4317 a living embodiment of these principles.
4318     </p><p>
4319       When he speaks about his work, he talks about how much the song-a-day
4320 process has changed him. Rather than seeing any given piece of work as
4321 precious and getting stuck on trying to make it perfect, he has become
4322 comfortable with just doing. If today’s song is a bust, tomorrow’s song
4323 might be better.
4324     </p><p>
4325       Jonathan seems to have this mentality about his career more generally. He is
4326 constantly experimenting with ways to make a living while sharing his work
4327 as widely as possible, seeing what sticks. While he has major
4328 accomplishments he is proud of, like being in the Guinness World Records or
4329 having his song used by Steve Jobs, he says he never truly feels successful.
4330     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Success feels like it’s over,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">To a certain
4331 extent, a creative person is not ever going to feel completely satisfied
4332 because then so much of what drives you would be gone.</span>”</span>
4333     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="noun-project"></a>第 15 章 Noun Project</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
4334         The Noun Project is a for-profit company offering an online platform to
4335 display visual icons from a global network of designers. Founded in 2010 in
4336 the U.S.
4337       </p><p>
4338           <a class="ulink" href="http://thenounproject.com" target="_top">http://thenounproject.com</a>
4339         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging a transaction
4340 fee, charging for custom services
4341       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: October 6, 2015
4342       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Edward Boatman, cofounder
4343       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
4344     \textit{
4345         Profile written by Paul Stacey
4346       }
4347     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
4348       The Noun Project creates and shares visual language. There are millions who
4349 use Noun Project symbols to simplify communication across borders,
4350 languages, and cultures.
4351     </p><p>
4352       The original idea for the Noun Project came to cofounder Edward Boatman
4353 while he was a student in architecture design school. He’d always done a lot
4354 of sketches and started to draw what used to fascinate him as a child, like
4355 trains, sequoias, and bulldozers.  He began thinking how great it would be
4356 if he had a simple image or small icon of every single object or concept on
4357 the planet.
4358     </p><p>
4359       When Edward went on to work at an architecture firm, he had to make a lot of
4360 presentation boards for clients. But finding high-quality sources for
4361 symbols and icons was difficult. He couldn’t find any website that could
4362 provide them. Perhaps his idea for creating a library of icons could
4363 actually help people in similar situations.
4364     </p><p>
4365       With his partner, Sofya Polyakov, he began collecting symbols for a website
4366 and writing a business plan. Inspiration came from the book Professor and
4367 the Madman, which chronicles the use of crowdsourcing to create the Oxford
4368 English Dictionary in 1870.  Edward began to imagine crowdsourcing icons and
4369 symbols from volunteer designers around the world.
4370     </p><p>
4371       Then Edward got laid off during the recession, which turned out to be a huge
4372 catalyst. He decided to give his idea a go, and in 2010 Edward and Sofya
4373 launched the Noun Project with a Kickstarter campaign, back when Kickstarter
4374 was in its infancy.<a href="#ftn.idm1428" class="footnote" name="idm1428"><sup class="footnote">[126]</sup></a> They thought it’d
4375 be a good way to introduce the global web community to their idea. Their
4376 goal was to raise $1,500, but in twenty days they got over $14,000. They
4377 realized their idea had the potential to be something much bigger.
4378     </p><p>
4379       They created a platform where symbols and icons could be uploaded, and
4380 Edward began recruiting talented designers to contribute their designs, a
4381 process he describes as a relatively easy sell. Lots of designers have old
4382 drawings just gathering <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">digital dust</span>”</span> on their hard
4383 drives. It’s easy to convince them to finally share them with the world.
4384     </p><p>
4385       The Noun Project currently has about seven thousand designers from around
4386 the world. But not all submissions are accepted. The Noun Project’s
4387 quality-review process means that only the best works become part of its
4388 collection. They make sure to provide encouraging, constructive feedback
4389 whenever they reject a piece of work, which maintains and builds the
4390 relationship they have with their global community of designers.
4391     </p><p>
4392       Creative Commons is an integral part of the Noun Project’s business model;
4393 this decision was inspired by Chris Anderson’s book Free: The Future of
4394 Radical Price, which introduced Edward to the idea that you could build a
4395 business model around free content.
4396     </p><p>
4397       Edward knew he wanted to offer a free visual language while still providing
4398 some protection and reward for its contributors. There is a tension between
4399 those two goals, but for Edward, Creative Commons licenses bring this
4400 idealism and business opportunity together elegantly. He chose the
4401 Attribution (CC BY) license, which means people can download the icons for
4402 free and modify them and even use them commercially. The requirement to give
4403 attribution to the original creator ensures that the creator can build a
4404 reputation and get global recognition for their work. And if they simply
4405 want to offer an icon that people can use without having to give credit,
4406 they can use CC0 to put the work into the public domain.
4407     </p><p>
4408       Noun Project’s business model and means of generating revenue have evolved
4409 significantly over time. Their initial plan was to sell T-shirts with the
4410 icons on it, which in retrospect Edward says was a horrible idea. They did
4411 get a lot of email from people saying they loved the icons but asking if
4412 they could pay a fee instead of giving attribution. Ad agencies (among
4413 others) wanted to keep marketing and presentation materials clean and free
4414 of attribution statements. For Edward, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">That’s when our lightbulb went
4415 off.</span>”</span>
4416     </p><p>
4417       They asked their global network of designers whether they’d be open to
4418 receiving modest remuneration instead of attribution.  Designers saw it as a
4419 win-win. The idea that you could offer your designs for free and have a
4420 global audience and maybe even make some money was pretty exciting for most
4421 designers.
4422     </p><p>
4423       The Noun Project first adopted a model whereby using an icon without giving
4424 attribution would cost $1.99 per icon. The model’s second iteration added a
4425 subscription component, where there would be a monthly fee to access a
4426 certain number of icons—ten, fifty, a hundred, or five hundred. However,
4427 users didn’t like these hard-count options. They preferred to try out many
4428 similar icons to see which worked best before eventually choosing the one
4429 they wanted to use. So the Noun Project moved to an unlimited model, whereby
4430 users have unlimited access to the whole library for a flat monthly
4431 fee. This service is called NounPro and costs $9.99 per month. Edward says
4432 this model is working well—good for customers, good for creators, and good
4433 for the platform.
4434     </p><p>
4435       Customers then began asking for an application-programming interface (API),
4436 which would allow Noun Project icons and symbols to be directly accessed
4437 from within other applications. Edward knew that the icons and symbols would
4438 be valuable in a lot of different contexts and that they couldn’t possibly
4439 know all of them in advance, so they built an API with a lot of
4440 flexibility.  Knowing that most API applications would want to use the icons
4441 without giving attribution, the API was built with the aim of charging for
4442 its use. You can use what’s called the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Playground API</span>”</span> for
4443 free to test how it integrates with your application, but full
4444 implementation will require you to purchase the API Pro version.
4445     </p><p>
4446       The Noun Project shares revenue with its international designers.  For
4447 one-off purchases, the revenue is split 70 percent to the designer and 30
4448 percent to Noun Project.
4449     </p><p>
4450       The revenue from premium purchases (the subscription and API options) is
4451 split a little differently. At the end of each month, the total revenue from
4452 subscriptions is divided by Noun Project’s total number of downloads,
4453 resulting in a rate per download—for example, it could be $0.13 per download
4454 for that month. For each download, the revenue is split 40 percent to the
4455 designer and 60 percent to the Noun Project. (For API usage, it’s per use
4456 instead of per download.) Noun Project’s share is higher this time as it’s
4457 providing more service to the user.
4458     </p><p>
4459       The Noun Project tries to be completely transparent about their royalty
4460 structure.<a href="#ftn.idm1445" class="footnote" name="idm1445"><sup class="footnote">[127]</sup></a> They tend to over
4461 communicate with creators about it because building trust is the top
4462 priority.
4463     </p><p>
4464       For most creators, contributing to the Noun Project is not a full-time job
4465 but something they do on the side. Edward categorizes monthly earnings for
4466 creators into three broad categories: enough money to buy beer; enough to
4467 pay the bills; and most successful of all, enough to pay the rent.
4468     </p><p>
4469       Recently the Noun Project launched a new app called Lingo.  Designers can
4470 use Lingo to organize not just their Noun Project icons and symbols but also
4471 their photos, illustrations, UX designs, et cetera. You simply drag any
4472 visual item directly into Lingo to save it. Lingo also works for teams so
4473 people can share visuals with each other and search across their combined
4474 collections. Lingo is free for personal use. A pro version for $9.99 per
4475 month lets you add guests. A team version for $49.95 per month allows up to
4476 twenty-five team members to collaborate, and to view, use, edit, and add new
4477 assets to each other’s collections.  And if you subscribe to NounPro, you
4478 can access Noun Project from within Lingo.
4479     </p><p>
4480       The Noun Project gives a ton of value away for free. A very large percentage
4481 of their roughly one million members have a free account, but there are
4482 still lots of paid accounts coming from digital designers, advertising and
4483 design agencies, educators, and others who need to communicate ideas
4484 visually.
4485     </p><p>
4486       For Edward, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">creating, sharing, and celebrating the world’s visual
4487 language</span>”</span> is the most important aspect of what they do; it’s their
4488 stated mission. It differentiates them from others who offer graphics,
4489 icons, or clip art.
4490     </p><p>
4491       Noun Project creators agree. When surveyed on why they participate in the
4492 Noun Project, this is how designers rank their reasons: 1)  to support the
4493 Noun Project mission, 2) to promote their own personal brand, and 3) to
4494 generate money. It’s striking to see that money comes third, and mission,
4495 first. If you want to engage a global network of contributors, it’s
4496 important to have a mission beyond making money.
4497     </p><p>
4498       In Edward’s view, Creative Commons is central to their mission of sharing
4499 and social good. Using Creative Commons makes the Noun Project’s mission
4500 genuine and has generated a lot of their initial traction and
4501 credibility. CC comes with a built-in community of users and fans.
4502     </p><p>
4503       Edward told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Don’t underestimate the power of a passionate
4504 community around your product or your business. They are going to go to bat
4505 for you when you’re getting ripped in the media. If you go down the road of
4506 choosing to work with Creative Commons, you’re taking the first step to
4507 building a great community and tapping into a really awesome community that
4508 comes with it. But you need to continue to foster that community through
4509 other initiatives and continue to nurture it.</span>”</span>
4510     </p><p>
4511       The Noun Project nurtures their creators’ second motivation—promoting a
4512 personal brand—by connecting every icon and symbol to the creator’s name and
4513 profile page; each profile features their full collection. Users can also
4514 search the icons by the creator’s name.
4515     </p><p>
4516       The Noun Project also builds community through Iconathons—hackathons for
4517 icons.<a href="#ftn.idm1459" class="footnote" name="idm1459"><sup class="footnote">[128]</sup></a> In partnership with a sponsoring
4518 organization, the Noun Project comes up with a theme (e.g., sustainable
4519 energy, food bank, guerrilla gardening, human rights) and a list of icons
4520 that are needed, which designers are invited to create at the event.  The
4521 results are vectorized, and added to the Noun Project using CC0 so they can
4522 be used by anyone for free.
4523     </p><p>
4524       Providing a free version of their product that satisfies a lot of their
4525 customers’ needs has actually enabled the Noun Project to build the paid
4526 version, using a service-oriented model. The Noun Project’s success lies in
4527 creating services and content that are a strategic mix of free and paid
4528 while staying true to their mission—creating, sharing, and celebrating the
4529 world’s visual language. Integrating Creative Commons into their model has
4530 been key to that goal.
4531     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1428" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1428" class="para"><sup class="para">[126] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/tnp/building-a-free-collection-of-our-worlds-visual-sy/description" target="_top">http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/tnp/building-a-free-collection-of-our-worlds-visual-sy/description</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1445" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1445" class="para"><sup class="para">[127] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://thenounproject.com/handbook/royalties/#getting_paid" target="_top">http://thenounproject.com/handbook/royalties/#getting_paid</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1459" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1459" class="para"><sup class="para">[128] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://thenounproject.com/handbook/royalties/#getting_paid" target="_top">http://thenounproject.com/handbook/royalties/#getting_paid</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="open-data-institute"></a>第 16 章 Open Data Institute</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
4532         The Open Data Institute is an independent nonprofit that connects, equips,
4533 and inspires people around the world to innovate with data. Founded in 2012
4534 in the UK.
4535       </p><p>
4536           <a class="ulink" href="http://theodi.org" target="_top">http://theodi.org</a>
4537         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: grant and government
4538 funding, charging for custom services, donations
4539       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: November 11, 2015
4540       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Jeni Tennison, technical
4541 director
4542       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
4543     \textit{
4544         Profile written by Paul Stacey
4545       }
4546     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
4547       Cofounded by Sir Tim Berners-Lee and Sir Nigel Shadbolt in 2012, the
4548 London-based Open Data Institute (ODI) offers data-related training, events,
4549 consulting services, and research. For ODI, Creative Commons licenses are
4550 central to making their own business model and their customers’ open. CC BY
4551 (Attribution), CC BY-SA (Attribution-ShareAlike), and CC0 (placed in the
4552 public domain)  all play a critical role in ODI’s mission to help people
4553 around the world innovate with data.
4554     </p><p>
4555       Data underpins planning and decision making across all aspects of
4556 society. Weather data helps farmers know when to plant their crops, flight
4557 time data from airplane companies helps us plan our travel, data on local
4558 housing informs city planning. When this data is not only accurate and
4559 timely, but open and accessible, it opens up new possibilities. Open data
4560 can be a resource businesses use to build new products and services. It can
4561 help governments measure progress, improve efficiency, and target
4562 investments. It can help citizens improve their lives by better
4563 understanding what is happening around them.
4564     </p><p>
4565       The Open Data Institute’s 2012–17 business plan starts out by describing its
4566 vision to establish itself as a world-leading center and to research and be
4567 innovative with the opportunities created by the UK government’s open data
4568 policy. (The government was an early pioneer in open policy and open-data
4569 initiatives.) It goes on to say that the ODI wants to—
4570     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4571           demonstrate the commercial value of open government data and how open-data
4572 policies affect this;
4573         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4574           develop the economic benefits case and business models for open data;
4575         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4576           help UK businesses use open data; and
4577         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4578           show how open data can improve public services.<a href="#ftn.idm1488" class="footnote" name="idm1488"><sup class="footnote">[129]</sup></a>
4579         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4580       ODI is very explicit about how it wants to make open business models, and
4581 defining what this means. Jeni Tennison, ODI’s technical director, puts it
4582 this way: <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is a whole ecosystem of open—open-source software,
4583 open government, open-access research—and a whole ecosystem of data. ODI’s
4584 work cuts across both, with an emphasis on where they overlap—with open
4585 data.</span>”</span> ODI’s particular focus is to show open data’s potential for
4586 revenue.
4587     </p><p>
4588       As an independent nonprofit, ODI secured £10 million over five years from
4589 the UK government via Innovate UK, an agency that promotes innovation in
4590 science and technology. For this funding, ODI has to secure matching funds
4591 from other sources, some of which were met through a $4.75-million
4592 investment from the Omidyar Network.
4593     </p><p>
4594       Jeni started out as a developer and technical architect for data.gov.uk, the
4595 UK government’s pioneering open-data initiative.  She helped make data sets
4596 from government departments available as open data. She joined ODI in 2012
4597 when it was just starting up, as one of six people. It now has a staff of
4598 about sixty.
4599     </p><p>
4600       ODI strives to have half its annual budget come from the core UK government
4601 and Omidyar grants, and the other half from project-based research and
4602 commercial work. In Jeni’s view, having this balance of revenue sources
4603 establishes some stability, but also keeps them motivated to go out and
4604 generate these matching funds in response to market needs.
4605     </p><p>
4606       On the commercial side, ODI generates funding through memberships, training,
4607 and advisory services.
4608     </p><p>
4609       You can join the ODI as an individual or commercial member.  Individual
4610 membership is pay-what-you-can, with options ranging from £1 to
4611 £100. Members receive a newsletter and related communications and a discount
4612 on ODI training courses and the annual summit, and they can display an
4613 ODI-supporter badge on their website. Commercial membership is divided into
4614 two tiers: small to medium size enterprises and nonprofits at £720 a year,
4615 and corporations and government organizations at £2,200 a year.  Commercial
4616 members have greater opportunities to connect and collaborate, explore the
4617 benefits of open data, and unlock new business opportunities. (All members
4618 are listed on their website.)<a href="#ftn.idm1498" class="footnote" name="idm1498"><sup class="footnote">[130]</sup></a>
4619     </p><p>
4620       ODI provides standardized open data training courses in which anyone can
4621 enroll. The initial idea was to offer an intensive and academically oriented
4622 diploma in open data, but it quickly became clear there was no market for
4623 that. Instead, they offered a five-day-long public training course, which
4624 has subsequently been reduced to three days; now the most popular course is
4625 one day long. The fee, in addition to the time commitment, can be a barrier
4626 for participation. Jeni says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Most of the people who would be able to
4627 pay don’t know they need it. Most who know they need it can’t pay.</span>”</span>
4628 Public-sector organizations sometimes give vouchers to their employees so
4629 they can attend as a form of professional development.
4630     </p><p>
4631       ODI customizes training for clients as well, for which there is more
4632 demand. Custom training usually emerges through an established relationship
4633 with an organization. The training program is based on a definition of
4634 open-data knowledge as applicable to the organization and on the skills
4635 needed by their high-level executives, management, and technical staff. The
4636 training tends to generate high interest and commitment.
4637     </p><p>
4638       Education about open data is also a part of ODI’s annual summit event, where
4639 curated presentations and speakers showcase the work of ODI and its members
4640 across the entire ecosystem. Tickets to the summit are available to the
4641 public, and hundreds of people and organizations attend and participate. In
4642 2014, there were four thematic tracks and over 750 attendees.
4643     </p><p>
4644       In addition to memberships and training, ODI provides advisory services to
4645 help with technical-data support, technology development, change management,
4646 policies, and other areas. ODI has advised large commercial organizations,
4647 small businesses, and international governments; the focus at the moment is
4648 on government, but ODI is working to shift more toward commercial
4649 organizations.
4650     </p><p>
4651       On the commercial side, the following value propositions seem to resonate:
4652     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4653           Data-driven insights. Businesses need data from outside their business to
4654 get more insight. Businesses can generate value and more effectively pursue
4655 their own goals if they open up their own data too. Big data is a hot topic.
4656         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4657           Open innovation. Many large-scale enterprises are aware they don’t innovate
4658 very well. One way they can innovate is to open up their data. ODI
4659 encourages them to do so even if it exposes problems and challenges. The key
4660 is to invite other people to help while still maintaining organizational
4661 autonomy.
4662         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4663           Corporate social responsibility. While this resonates with businesses, ODI
4664 cautions against having it be the sole reason for making data open. If a
4665 business is just thinking about open data as a way to be transparent and
4666 accountable, they can miss out on efficiencies and opportunities.
4667         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4668       During their early years, ODI wanted to focus solely on the United
4669 Kingdom. But in their first year, large delegations of government visitors
4670 from over fifty countries wanted to learn more about the UK government’s
4671 open-data practices and how ODI saw that translating into economic
4672 value. They were contracted as a service provider to international
4673 governments, which prompted a need to set up international ODI
4674 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">nodes.</span>”</span>
4675     </p><p>
4676       Nodes are franchises of the ODI at a regional or city level.  Hosted by
4677 existing (for-profit or not-for-profit) organizations, they operate locally
4678 but are part of the global network. Each ODI node adopts the charter, a set
4679 of guiding principles and rules under which ODI operates. They develop and
4680 deliver training, connect people and businesses through membership and
4681 events, and communicate open-data stories from their part of the
4682 world. There are twenty-seven different nodes across nineteen countries. ODI
4683 nodes are charged a small fee to be part of the network and to use the
4684 brand.
4685     </p><p>
4686       ODI also runs programs to help start-ups in the UK and across Europe develop
4687 a sustainable business around open data, offering mentoring, advice,
4688 training, and even office space.<a href="#ftn.idm1518" class="footnote" name="idm1518"><sup class="footnote">[131]</sup></a>
4689     </p><p>
4690       A big part of ODI’s business model revolves around community
4691 building. Memberships, training, summits, consulting services, nodes, and
4692 start-up programs create an ever-growing network of open-data users and
4693 leaders. (In fact, ODI even operates something called an Open Data Leaders
4694 Network.) For ODI, community is key to success. They devote significant time
4695 and effort to build it, not just online but through face-to-face events.
4696     </p><p>
4697       ODI has created an online tool that organizations can use to assess the
4698 legal, practical, technical, and social aspects of their open data. If it is
4699 of high quality, the organization can earn ODI’s Open Data Certificate, a
4700 globally recognized mark that signals that their open data is useful,
4701 reliable, accessible, discoverable, and supported.<a href="#ftn.idm1524" class="footnote" name="idm1524"><sup class="footnote">[132]</sup></a>
4702     </p><p>
4703       Separate from commercial activities, the ODI generates funding through
4704 research grants. Research includes looking at evidence on the impact of open
4705 data, development of open-data tools and standards, and how to deploy open
4706 data at scale.
4707     </p><p>
4708       Creative Commons 4.0 licenses cover database rights and ODI recommends CC
4709 BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 for data releases. ODI encourages publishers of data
4710 to use Creative Commons licenses rather than creating new <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open
4711 licenses</span>”</span> of their own.
4712     </p><p>
4713       For ODI, open is at the heart of what they do. They also release any
4714 software code they produce under open-source-software licenses, and
4715 publications and reports under CC BY or CC BY-SA licenses. ODI’s mission is
4716 to connect and equip people around the world so they can innovate with
4717 data. Disseminating stories, research, guidance, and code under an open
4718 license is essential for achieving that mission. It also demonstrates that
4719 it is perfectly possible to generate sustainable revenue streams that do not
4720 rely on restrictive licensing of content, data, or code.  People pay to have
4721 ODI experts provide training to them, not for the content of the training;
4722 people pay for the advice ODI gives them, not for the methodologies they
4723 use. Producing open content, data, and source code helps establish
4724 credibility and creates leads for the paid services that they
4725 offer. According to Jeni, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The biggest lesson we have learned is that
4726 it is completely possible to be open, get customers, and make money.</span>”</span>
4727     </p><p>
4728       To serve as evidence of a successful open business model and return on
4729 investment, ODI has a public dashboard of key performance indicators. Here
4730 are a few metrics as of April 27, 2016:
4731     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4732           Total amount of cash investments unlocked in direct investments in ODI,
4733 competition funding, direct contracts, and partnerships, and income that ODI
4734 nodes and ODI start-ups have generated since joining the ODI program: £44.5
4735 million
4736         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4737           Total number of active members and nodes across the globe: 1,350
4738         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4739           Total sales since ODI began: £7.44 million
4740         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4741           Total number of unique people reached since ODI began, in person and online:
4742 2.2 million
4743         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4744           Total Open Data Certificates created: 151,000
4745         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4746           Total number of people trained by ODI and its nodes since ODI began:
4747 5,080<a href="#ftn.idm1546" class="footnote" name="idm1546"><sup class="footnote">[133]</sup></a>
4748         </p></li></ul></div><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1488" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1488" class="para"><sup class="para">[129] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://e642e8368e3bf8d5526e-464b4b70b4554c1a79566214d402739e.r6.cf3.rackcdn.com/odi-business-plan-may-release.pdf" target="_top">http://e642e8368e3bf8d5526e-464b4b70b4554c1a79566214d402739e.r6.cf3.rackcdn.com/odi-business-plan-may-release.pdf</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1498" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1498" class="para"><sup class="para">[130] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://directory.theodi.org/members" target="_top">http://directory.theodi.org/members</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1518" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1518" class="para"><sup class="para">[131] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://theodi.org/odi-startup-programme" target="_top">http://theodi.org/odi-startup-programme</a>; <a class="ulink" href="http://theodi.org/open-data-incubator-for-europe" target="_top">http://theodi.org/open-data-incubator-for-europe</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1524" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1524" class="para"><sup class="para">[132] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://certificates.theodi.org" target="_top">http://certificates.theodi.org</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1546" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1546" class="para"><sup class="para">[133] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://dashboards.theodi.org/company/all" target="_top">http://dashboards.theodi.org/company/all</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="opendesk"></a>第 17 章 OpenDesk</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
4749         Opendesk is a for-profit company offering an online platform that connects
4750 furniture designers around the world with customers and local makers who
4751 bring the designs to life.  Founded in 2014 in the UK.
4752       </p><p>
4753           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.opendesk.cc" target="_top">http://www.opendesk.cc</a>
4754         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging a transaction fee
4755       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: November 4, 2015
4756       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: Nick Ierodiaconou and Joni
4757 Steiner, cofounders
4758       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
4759     \textit{
4760         Profile written by Paul Stacey
4761       }
4762     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
4763       Opendesk is an online platform that connects furniture designers around the
4764 world not just with customers but also with local registered makers who
4765 bring the designs to life. Opendesk and the designer receive a portion of
4766 every sale that is made by a maker.
4767     </p><p>
4768       Cofounders Nick Ierodiaconou and Joni Steiner studied and worked as
4769 architects together. They also made goods. Their first client was Mint
4770 Digital, who had an interest in open licensing. Nick and Joni were exploring
4771 digital fabrication, and Mint’s interest in open licensing got them to
4772 thinking how the open-source world may interact and apply to physical
4773 goods. They sought to design something for their client that was also
4774 reproducible. As they put it, they decided to <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">ship the recipe, but
4775 not the goods.</span>”</span> They created the design using software, put it under
4776 an open license, and had it manufactured locally near the client. This was
4777 the start of the idea for Opendesk. The idea for Wikihouse—another open
4778 project dedicated to accessible housing for all—started as discussions
4779 around the same table. The two projects ultimately went on separate paths,
4780 with Wikihouse becoming a nonprofit foundation and Opendesk a for-profit
4781 company.
4782     </p><p>
4783       When Nick and Joni set out to create Opendesk, there were a lot of questions
4784 about the viability of distributed manufacturing. No one was doing it in a
4785 way that was even close to realistic or competitive. The design community
4786 had the intent, but fulfilling this vision was still a long way away.
4787     </p><p>
4788       And now this sector is emerging, and Nick and Joni are highly interested in
4789 the commercialization aspects of it. As part of coming up with a business
4790 model, they began investigating intellectual property and licensing
4791 options. It was a thorny space, especially for designs. Just what aspect of
4792 a design is copyrightable? What is patentable? How can allowing for digital
4793 sharing and distribution be balanced against the designer’s desire to still
4794 hold ownership? In the end, they decided there was no need to reinvent the
4795 wheel and settled on using Creative Commons.
4796     </p><p>
4797       When designing the Opendesk system, they had two goals. They wanted anyone,
4798 anywhere in the world, to be able to download designs so that they could be
4799 made locally, and they wanted a viable model that benefited designers when
4800 their designs were sold. Coming up with a business model was going to be
4801 complex.
4802     </p><p>
4803       They gave a lot of thought to three angles—the potential for social sharing,
4804 allowing designers to choose their license, and the impact these choices
4805 would have on the business model.
4806     </p><p>
4807       In support of social sharing, Opendesk actively advocates for (but doesn’t
4808 demand) open licensing. And Nick and Joni are agnostic about which Creative
4809 Commons license is used; it’s up to the designer. They can be proprietary or
4810 choose from the full suite of Creative Commons licenses, deciding for
4811 themselves how open or closed they want to be.
4812     </p><p>
4813       For the most part, designers love the idea of sharing content.  They
4814 understand that you get positive feedback when you’re attributed, what Nick
4815 and Joni called <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">reputational glow.</span>”</span> And Opendesk does an
4816 awesome job profiling the designers.<a href="#ftn.idm1572" class="footnote" name="idm1572"><sup class="footnote">[134]</sup></a>
4817     </p><p>
4818       While designers are largely OK with personal sharing, there is a concern
4819 that someone will take the design and manufacture the furniture in bulk,
4820 with the designer not getting any benefits. So most Opendesk designers
4821 choose the Attribution-NonCommercial license (CC BY-NC).
4822     </p><p>
4823       Anyone can download a design and make it themselves, provided it’s for
4824 noncommercial use — and there have been many, many downloads.  Or users can
4825 buy the product from Opendesk, or from a registered maker in Opendesk’s
4826 network, for on-demand personal fabrication.  The network of Opendesk makers
4827 currently is made up of those who do digital fabrication using a
4828 computer-controlled CNC (Computer Numeric Control) machining device that
4829 cuts shapes out of wooden sheets according to the specifications in the
4830 design file.
4831     </p><p>
4832       Makers benefit from being part of Opendesk’s network. Making furniture for
4833 local customers is paid work, and Opendesk generates business for them. Joni
4834 said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Finding a whole network and community of makers was pretty easy
4835 because we built a site where people could write in about their
4836 capabilities. Building the community by learning from the maker community is
4837 how we have moved forward.</span>”</span> Opendesk now has relationships with
4838 hundreds of makers in countries all around the world.<a href="#ftn.idm1579" class="footnote" name="idm1579"><sup class="footnote">[135]</sup></a>
4839     </p><p>
4840       The makers are a critical part of the Opendesk business model.  Their model
4841 builds off the makers’ quotes. Here’s how it’s expressed on Opendesk’s
4842 website:
4843     </p><p>
4844       When customers buy an Opendesk product directly from a registered maker,
4845 they pay:
4846     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4847           the manufacturing cost as set by the maker (this covers material and labour
4848 costs for the product to be manufactured and any extra assembly costs
4849 charged by the maker)
4850         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4851           a design fee for the designer (a design fee that is paid to the designer
4852 every time their design is used)
4853         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4854           a percentage fee to the Opendesk platform (this supports the infrastructure
4855 and ongoing development of the platform that helps us build out our
4856 marketplace)
4857         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4858           a percentage fee to the channel through which the sale is made (at the
4859 moment this is Opendesk, but in the future we aim to open this up to
4860 third-party sellers who can sell Opendesk products through their own
4861 channels—this covers sales and marketing fees for the relevant channel)
4862         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4863           a local delivery service charge (the delivery is typically charged by the
4864 maker, but in some cases may be paid to a third-party delivery partner)
4865         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4866           charges for any additional services the customer chooses, such as on-site
4867 assembly (additional services are discretionary—in many cases makers will be
4868 happy to quote for assembly on-site and designers may offer bespoke design
4869 options)
4870         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4871           local sales taxes (variable by customer and maker location)<a href="#ftn.idm1599" class="footnote" name="idm1599"><sup class="footnote">[136]</sup></a>
4872         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4873       They then go into detail how makers’ quotes are created:
4874     </p><p>
4875       When a customer wants to buy an Opendesk . . . they are provided with a
4876 transparent breakdown of fees including the manufacturing cost, design fee,
4877 Opendesk platform fee and channel fees. If a customer opts to buy by getting
4878 in touch directly with a registered local maker using a downloaded Opendesk
4879 file, the maker is responsible for ensuring the design fee, Opendesk
4880 platform fee and channel fees are included in any quote at the time of
4881 sale.  Percentage fees are always based on the underlying manufacturing cost
4882 and are typically apportioned as follows:
4883     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4884           manufacturing cost: fabrication, finishing and any other costs as set by the
4885 maker (excluding any services like delivery or on-site assembly)
4886         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4887           design fee: 8 percent of the manufacturing cost
4888         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4889           platform fee: 12 percent of the manufacturing cost
4890         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4891           channel fee: 18 percent of the manufacturing cost
4892         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4893           sales tax: as applicable (depends on product and location)
4894         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4895       Opendesk shares revenue with their community of designers.  According to
4896 Nick and Joni, a typical designer fee is around 2.5 percent, so Opendesk’s 8
4897 percent is more generous, and providing a higher value to the designer.
4898     </p><p>
4899       The Opendesk website features stories of designers and makers.  Denis Fuzii
4900 published the design for the Valovi Chair from his studio in São Paulo. His
4901 designs have been downloaded over five thousand times in ninety-five
4902 countries. I.J. CNC Services is Ian Jinks, a professional maker based in the
4903 United Kingdom. Opendesk now makes up a large proportion of his business.
4904     </p><p>
4905       To manage resources and remain effective, Opendesk has so far focused on a
4906 very narrow niche—primarily office furniture of a certain simple aesthetic,
4907 which uses only one type of material and one manufacturing technique. This
4908 allows them to be more strategic and more disruptive in the market, by
4909 getting things to market quickly with competitive prices. It also reflects
4910 their vision of creating reproducible and functional pieces.
4911     </p><p>
4912       On their website, Opendesk describes what they do as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open
4913 making</span>”</span>: <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Designers get a global distribution channel. Makers
4914 get profitable jobs and new customers. You get designer products without the
4915 designer price tag, a more social, eco-friendly alternative to
4916 mass-production and an affordable way to buy custom-made products.</span>”</span>
4917     </p><p>
4918       Nick and Joni say that customers like the fact that the furniture has a
4919 known provenance. People really like that their furniture was designed by a
4920 certain international designer but was made by a maker in their local
4921 community; it’s a great story to tell. It certainly sets apart Opendesk
4922 furniture from the usual mass-produced items from a store.
4923     </p><p>
4924       Nick and Joni are taking a community-based approach to define and evolve
4925 Opendesk and the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open making</span>”</span> business model.  They’re
4926 engaging thought leaders and practitioners to define this new movement. They
4927 have a separate Open Making site, which includes a manifesto, a field guide,
4928 and an invitation to get involved in the Open Making community.<a href="#ftn.idm1624" class="footnote" name="idm1624"><sup class="footnote">[137]</sup></a> People can submit ideas and discuss the principles
4929 and business practices they’d like to see used.
4930     </p><p>
4931       Nick and Joni talked a lot with us about intellectual property (IP) and
4932 commercialization. Many of their designers fear the idea that someone could
4933 take one of their design files and make and sell infinite number of pieces
4934 of furniture with it. As a consequence, most Opendesk designers choose the
4935 Attribution-NonCommercial license (CC BY-NC).
4936     </p><p>
4937       Opendesk established a set of principles for what their community considers
4938 commercial and noncommercial use. Their website states:
4939     </p><p>
4940       It is unambiguously commercial use when anyone:
4941     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4942           charges a fee or makes a profit when making an Opendesk
4943         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4944           sells (or bases a commercial service on) an Opendesk
4945         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4946       It follows from this that noncommercial use is when you make an Opendesk
4947 yourself, with no intention to gain commercial advantage or monetary
4948 compensation. For example, these qualify as noncommercial:
4949     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
4950           you are an individual with your own CNC machine, or access to a shared CNC
4951 machine, and will personally cut and make a few pieces of furniture yourself
4952         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4953           you are a student (or teacher) and you use the design files for educational
4954 purposes or training (and do not intend to sell the resulting pieces)
4955         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
4956           you work for a charity and get furniture cut by volunteers, or by employees
4957 at a fab lab or maker space
4958         </p></li></ul></div><p>
4959       Whether or not people technically are doing things that implicate IP, Nick
4960 and Joni have found that people tend to comply with the wishes of creators
4961 out of a sense of fairness. They have found that behavioral economics can
4962 replace some of the thorny legal issues. In their business model, Nick and
4963 Joni are trying to suspend the focus on IP and build an open business model
4964 that works for all stakeholders—designers, channels, manufacturers, and
4965 customers. For them, the value Opendesk generates hangs off
4966 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">open,</span>”</span> not IP.
4967     </p><p>
4968       The mission of Opendesk is about relocalizing manufacturing, which changes
4969 the way we think about how goods are made.  Commercialization is integral to
4970 their mission, and they’ve begun to focus on success metrics that track how
4971 many makers and designers are engaged through Opendesk in revenue-making
4972 work.
4973     </p><p>
4974       As a global platform for local making, Opendesk’s business model has been
4975 built on honesty, transparency, and inclusivity. As Nick and Joni describe
4976 it, they put ideas out there that get traction and then have faith in
4977 people.
4978     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1572" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1572" class="para"><sup class="para">[134] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.opendesk.cc/designers" target="_top">http://www.opendesk.cc/designers</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1579" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1579" class="para"><sup class="para">[135] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.opendesk.cc/open-making/makers/" target="_top">http://www.opendesk.cc/open-making/makers/</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1599" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1599" class="para"><sup class="para">[136] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.opendesk.cc/open-making/join" target="_top">http://www.opendesk.cc/open-making/join</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1624" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1624" class="para"><sup class="para">[137] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://openmaking.is" target="_top">http://openmaking.is</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="openstax"></a>第 18 章 OpenStax</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
4979         OpenStax is a nonprofit that provides free, openly licensed textbooks for
4980 high-enrollment introductory college courses and Advanced Placement
4981 courses. Founded in 2012 in the U.S.
4982       </p><p>
4983           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.openstaxcollege.org" target="_top">http://www.openstaxcollege.org</a>
4984         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: grant funding, charging
4985 for custom services, charging for physical copies (textbook sales)
4986       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: December 16, 2015
4987       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: David Harris,
4988 editor-in-chief
4989       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
4990     \textit{
4991         Profile written by Paul Stacey
4992       }
4993     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
4994       OpenStax is an extension of a program called Connexions, which was started
4995 in 1999 by Dr. Richard Baraniuk, the Victor E. Cameron Professor of
4996 Electrical and Computer Engineering at Rice University in Houston,
4997 Texas. Frustrated by the limitations of traditional textbooks and courses,
4998 Dr. Baraniuk wanted to provide authors and learners a way to share and
4999 freely adapt educational materials such as courses, books, and
5000 reports. Today, Connexions (now called OpenStax CNX) is one of the world’s
5001 best libraries of customizable educational materials, all licensed with
5002 Creative Commons and available to anyone, anywhere, anytime—for free.
5003     </p><p>
5004       In 2008, while in a senior leadership role at WebAssign and looking at ways
5005 to reduce the risk that came with relying on publishers, David Harris began
5006 investigating open educational resources (OER) and discovered Connexions. A
5007 year and a half later, Connexions received a grant to help grow the use of
5008 OER so that it could meet the needs of students who couldn’t afford
5009 textbooks. David came on board to spearhead this effort.  Connexions became
5010 OpenStax CNX; the program to create open textbooks became OpenStax College,
5011 now simply called OpenStax.
5012     </p><p>
5013       David brought with him a deep understanding of the best practices of
5014 publishing along with where publishers have inefficiencies. In David’s view,
5015 peer review and high standards for quality are critically important if you
5016 want to scale easily. Books have to have logical scope and sequence, they
5017 have to exist as a whole and not in pieces, and they have to be easy to
5018 find. The working hypothesis for the launch of OpenStax was to
5019 professionally produce a turnkey textbook by investing effort up front, with
5020 the expectation that this would lead to rapid growth through easy downstream
5021 adoptions by faculty and students.
5022     </p><p>
5023       In 2012, OpenStax College launched as a nonprofit with the aim of producing
5024 high-quality, peer-reviewed full-color textbooks that would be available for
5025 free for the twenty-five most heavily attended college courses in the
5026 nation. Today they are fast approaching that number. There is data that
5027 proves the success of their original hypothesis on how many students they
5028 could help and how much money they could help save.<a href="#ftn.idm1664" class="footnote" name="idm1664"><sup class="footnote">[138]</sup></a> Professionally produced content scales rapidly. All
5029 with no sales force!
5030     </p><p>
5031       OpenStax textbooks are all Attribution (CC BY) licensed, and each textbook
5032 is available as a PDF, an e-book, or web pages. Those who want a physical
5033 copy can buy one for an affordable price. Given the cost of education and
5034 student debt in North America, free or very low-cost textbooks are very
5035 appealing. OpenStax encourages students to talk to their professor and
5036 librarians about these textbooks and to advocate for their use.
5037     </p><p>
5038       Teachers are invited to try out a single chapter from one of the textbooks
5039 with students. If that goes well, they’re encouraged to adopt the entire
5040 book. They can simply paste a URL into their course syllabus, for free and
5041 unlimited access. And with the CC BY license, teachers are free to delete
5042 chapters, make changes, and customize any book to fit their needs.
5043     </p><p>
5044       Any teacher can post corrections, suggest examples for difficult concepts,
5045 or volunteer as an editor or author. As many teachers also want supplemental
5046 material to accompany a textbook, OpenStax also provides slide
5047 presentations, test banks, answer keys, and so on.
5048     </p><p>
5049       Institutions can stand out by offering students a lower-cost education
5050 through the use of OpenStax textbooks; there’s even a textbook-savings
5051 calculator they can use to see how much students would save. OpenStax keeps
5052 a running list of institutions that have adopted their
5053 textbooks.<a href="#ftn.idm1671" class="footnote" name="idm1671"><sup class="footnote">[139]</sup></a>
5054     </p><p>
5055       Unlike traditional publishers’ monolithic approach of controlling
5056 intellectual property, distribution, and so many other aspects, OpenStax has
5057 adopted a model that embraces open licensing and relies on an extensive
5058 network of partners.
5059     </p><p>
5060       Up-front funding of a professionally produced all-color turnkey textbook is
5061 expensive. For this part of their model, OpenStax relies on
5062 philanthropy. They have initially been funded by the William and Flora
5063 Hewlett Foundation, the Laura and John Arnold Foundation, the Bill and
5064 Melinda Gates Foundation, the 20 Million Minds Foundation, the Maxfield
5065 Foundation, the Calvin K. Kazanjian Foundation, and Rice University. To
5066 develop additional titles and supporting technology is probably still going
5067 to require philanthropic investment.
5068     </p><p>
5069       However, ongoing operations will not rely on foundation grants but instead
5070 on funds received through an ecosystem of over forty partners, whereby a
5071 partner takes core content from OpenStax and adds features that it can
5072 create revenue from. For example, WebAssign, an online homework and
5073 assessment tool, takes the physics book and adds algorithmically generated
5074 physics problems, with problem-specific feedback, detailed solutions, and
5075 tutorial support. WebAssign resources are available to students for a fee.
5076     </p><p>
5077       Another example is Odigia, who has turned OpenStax books into interactive
5078 learning experiences and created additional tools to measure and promote
5079 student engagement. Odigia licenses its learning platform to
5080 institutions. Partners like Odigia and WebAssign give a percentage of the
5081 revenue they earn back to OpenStax, as mission-support fees. OpenStax has
5082 already published revisions of their titles, such as Introduction to
5083 Sociology 2e, using these funds.
5084     </p><p>
5085       In David’s view, this approach lets the market operate at peak
5086 efficiency. OpenStax’s partners don’t have to worry about developing
5087 textbook content, freeing them up from those development costs and letting
5088 them focus on what they do best.  With OpenStax textbooks available at no
5089 cost, they can provide their services at a lower cost—not free, but still
5090 saving students money. OpenStax benefits not only by receiving
5091 mission-support fees but through free publicity and marketing. OpenStax
5092 doesn’t have a sales force; partners are out there showcasing their
5093 materials.
5094     </p><p>
5095       OpenStax’s cost of sales to acquire a single student is very, very low and
5096 is a fraction of what traditional players in the market face. This year,
5097 Tyton Partners is actually evaluating the costs of sales for an OER effort
5098 like OpenStax in comparison with incumbents. David looks forward to sharing
5099 these findings with the community.
5100     </p><p>
5101       While OpenStax books are available online for free, many students still want
5102 a print copy. Through a partnership with a print and courier company,
5103 OpenStax offers a complete solution that scales.  OpenStax sells tens of
5104 thousands of print books. The price of an OpenStax sociology textbook is
5105 about twenty-eight dollars, a fraction of what sociology textbooks usually
5106 cost. OpenStax keeps the prices low but does aim to earn a small margin on
5107 each book sold, which also contributes to ongoing operations.
5108     </p><p>
5109       Campus-based bookstores are part of the OpenStax solution.  OpenStax
5110 collaborates with NACSCORP (the National Association of College Stores
5111 Corporation) to provide print versions of their textbooks in the
5112 stores. While the overall cost of the textbook is significantly less than a
5113 traditional textbook, bookstores can still make a profit on sales. Sometimes
5114 students take the savings they have from the lower-priced book and use it to
5115 buy other things in the bookstore. And OpenStax is trying to break the
5116 expensive behavior of excessive returns by having a no-returns policy. This
5117 is working well, since the sell-through of their print titles is virtually a
5118 hundred percent.
5119     </p><p>
5120       David thinks of the OpenStax model as <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">OER 2.0.</span>”</span> So what is OER
5121 1.0? Historically in the OER field, many OER initiatives have been locally
5122 funded by institutions or government ministries. In David’s view, this
5123 results in content that has high local value but is infrequently adopted
5124 nationally. It’s therefore difficult to show payback over a time scale that
5125 is reasonable.
5126     </p><p>
5127       OER 2.0 is about OER intended to be used and adopted on a national level
5128 right from the start. This requires a bigger investment up front but pays
5129 off through wide geographic adoption. The OER 2.0 process for OpenStax
5130 involves two development models. The first is what David calls the
5131 acquisition model, where OpenStax purchases the rights from a publisher or
5132 author for an already published book and then extensively revises it. The
5133 OpenStax physics textbook, for example, was licensed from an author after
5134 the publisher released the rights back to the authors. The second model is
5135 to develop a book from scratch, a good example being their biology book.
5136     </p><p>
5137       The process is similar for both models. First they look at the scope and
5138 sequence of existing textbooks. They ask questions like what does the
5139 customer need? Where are students having challenges? Then they identify
5140 potential authors and put them through a rigorous evaluation—only one in ten
5141 authors make it through.  OpenStax selects a team of authors who come
5142 together to develop a template for a chapter and collectively write the
5143 first draft (or revise it, in the acquisitions model). (OpenStax doesn’t do
5144 books with just a single author as David says it risks the project going
5145 longer than scheduled.) The draft is peer-reviewed with no less than three
5146 reviewers per chapter. A second draft is generated, with artists producing
5147 illustrations and visuals to go along with the text. The book is then
5148 copyedited to ensure grammatical correctness and a singular voice. Finally,
5149 it goes into production and through a final proofread. The whole process is
5150 very time-consuming.
5151     </p><p>
5152       All the people involved in this process are paid. OpenStax does not rely on
5153 volunteers. Writers, reviewers, illustrators, and editors are all paid an
5154 up-front fee—OpenStax does not use a royalty model. A best-selling author
5155 might make more money under the traditional publishing model, but that is
5156 only maybe 5 percent of all authors. From David’s perspective, 95 percent of
5157 all authors do better under the OER 2.0 model, as there is no risk to them
5158 and they earn all the money up front.
5159     </p><p>
5160       David thinks of the Attribution license (CC BY) as the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">innovation
5161 license.</span>”</span> It’s core to the mission of OpenStax, letting people use
5162 their textbooks in innovative ways without having to ask for permission. It
5163 frees up the whole market and has been central to OpenStax being able to
5164 bring on partners.  OpenStax sees a lot of customization of their
5165 materials. By enabling frictionless remixing, CC BY gives teachers control
5166 and academic freedom.
5167     </p><p>
5168       Using CC BY is also a good example of using strategies that traditional
5169 publishers can’t. Traditional publishers rely on copyright to prevent others
5170 from making copies and heavily invest in digital rights management to ensure
5171 their books aren’t shared.  By using CC BY, OpenStax avoids having to deal
5172 with digital rights management and its costs. OpenStax books can be copied
5173 and shared over and over again. CC BY changes the rules of engagement and
5174 takes advantage of traditional market inefficiencies.
5175     </p><p>
5176       As of September 16, 2016, OpenStax has achieved some impressive
5177 results. From the OpenStax at a Glance fact sheet from their recent press
5178 kit:
5179     </p><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist compact" style="list-style-type: disc; "><li class="listitem"><p>
5180           Books published: 23
5181         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
5182           Students who have used OpenStax: 1.6 million
5183         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
5184           Money saved for students: $155 million
5185         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
5186           Money saved for students in the 2016/17 academic year: $77 million
5187         </p></li><li class="listitem"><p>
5188           Schools that have used OpenStax: 2,668 (This number reflects all
5189 institutions using at least one OpenStax textbook. Out of 2,668 schools, 517
5190 are two-year colleges, 835 four-year colleges and universities, and 344
5191 colleges and universities outside the U.S.)
5192         </p></li></ul></div><p>
5193       While OpenStax has to date been focused on the United States, there is
5194 overseas adoption especially in the science, technology, engineering, and
5195 math (STEM) fields. Large scale adoption in the United States is seen as a
5196 necessary precursor to international interest.
5197     </p><p>
5198       OpenStax has primarily focused on introductory-level college courses where
5199 there is high enrollment, but they are starting to think about verticals—a
5200 broad offering for a specific group or need. David thinks it would be
5201 terrific if OpenStax could provide access to free textbooks through the
5202 entire curriculum of a nursing degree, for example.
5203     </p><p>
5204       Finally, for OpenStax success is not just about the adoption of their
5205 textbooks and student savings. There is a human aspect to the work that is
5206 hard to quantify but incredibly important. They get emails from students
5207 saying how OpenStax saved them from making difficult choices like buying
5208 food or a textbook. OpenStax would also like to assess the impact their
5209 books have on learning efficiency, persistence, and completion. By building
5210 an open business model based on Creative Commons, OpenStax is making it
5211 possible for every student who wants access to education to get it.
5212     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1664" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1664" class="para"><sup class="para">[138] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://news.rice.edu/files/2016/01/0119-OPENSTAX-2016Infographic-lg-1tahxiu.jpg" target="_top">http://news.rice.edu/files/2016/01/0119-OPENSTAX-2016Infographic-lg-1tahxiu.jpg</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1671" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1671" class="para"><sup class="para">[139] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://openstax.org/adopters" target="_top">http://openstax.org/adopters</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="amanda-palmer"></a>第 19 章 Amanda Palmer</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
5213         Amanda Palmer is a musician, artist, and writer. Based in the U.S.
5214       </p><p>
5215           <a class="ulink" href="http://amandapalmer.net" target="_top">http://amandapalmer.net</a>
5216         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: crowdfunding
5217 (subscription-based), pay-what-you-want, charging for physical copies (book
5218 and album sales), charg-ing for in-person version (performances), selling
5219 merchandise
5220       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: December 15, 2015
5221       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
5222     \textit{
5223         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
5224       }
5225     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
5226       Since the beginning of her career, Amanda Palmer has been on what she calls
5227 a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">journey with no roadmap,</span>”</span> continually experimenting to find
5228 new ways to sustain her creative work.<a href="#ftn.idm1718" class="footnote" name="idm1718"><sup class="footnote">[140]</sup></a>
5229     </p><p>
5230       In her best-selling book, The Art of Asking, Amanda articulates exactly what
5231 she has been and continues to strive for—<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">the ideal sweet spot
5232 . . . in which the artist can share freely and directly feel the
5233 reverberations of their artistic gifts to the community, and make a living
5234 doing that.</span>”</span>
5235     </p><p>
5236       While she seems to have successfully found that sweet spot for herself,
5237 Amanda is the first to acknowledge there is no silver bullet. She thinks the
5238 digital age is both an exciting and frustrating time for creators. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">On
5239 the one hand, we have this beautiful shareability,</span>”</span> Amanda
5240 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">On the other, you’ve got a bunch of confused artists wondering
5241 how to make money to buy food so we can make more art.</span>”</span>
5242     </p><p>
5243       Amanda began her artistic career as a street performer. She would dress up
5244 in an antique wedding gown, paint her face white, stand on a stack of milk
5245 crates, and hand out flowers to strangers as part of a silent dramatic
5246 performance. She collected money in a hat. Most people walked by her without
5247 stopping, but an essential few stopped to watch and drop some money into her
5248 hat to show their appreciation. Rather than dwelling on the majority of
5249 people who ignored her, she felt thankful for those who stopped.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">All
5250 I needed was . . . some people,</span>”</span> she wrote in her book. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Enough
5251 people. Enough to make it worth coming back the next day, enough people to
5252 help me make rent and put food on the table. Enough so I could keep making
5253 art.</span>”</span>
5254     </p><p>
5255       Amanda has come a long way from her street-performing days, but her career
5256 remains dominated by that same sentiment—finding ways to reach <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">her
5257 crowd</span>”</span> and feeling gratitude when she does. With her band the Dresden
5258 Dolls, Amanda tried the traditional path of signing with a record label. It
5259 didn’t take for a variety of reasons, but one of them was that the label had
5260 absolutely no interest in Amanda’s view of success. They wanted hits, but
5261 making music for the masses was never what Amanda and the Dresden Dolls set
5262 out to do.
5263     </p><p>
5264       After leaving the record label in 2008, she began experimenting with
5265 different ways to make a living. She released music directly to the public
5266 without involving a middle man, releasing digital files on a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">pay what
5267 you want</span>”</span> basis and selling CDs and vinyl. She also made money from
5268 live performances and merchandise sales. Eventually, in 2012 she decided to
5269 try her hand at the sort of crowdfunding we know so well today. Her
5270 Kickstarter project started with a goal of $100,000, and she made $1.2
5271 million. It remains one of the most successful Kickstarter projects of all
5272 time.
5273     </p><p>
5274       Today, Amanda has switched gears away from crowdfunding for specific
5275 projects to instead getting consistent financial support from her fan base
5276 on Patreon, a crowdfunding site that allows artists to get recurring
5277 donations from fans. More than eight thousand people have signed up to
5278 support her so she can create music, art, and any other creative
5279 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">thing</span>”</span> that she is inspired to make. The recurring pledges are
5280 made on a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">per thing</span>”</span> basis. All of the content she makes is
5281 made freely available under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license
5282 (CC BY-NC-SA).
5283     </p><p>
5284       Making her music and art available under Creative Commons licensing
5285 undoubtedly limits her options for how she makes a living. But sharing her
5286 work has been part of her model since the beginning of her career, even
5287 before she discovered Creative Commons. Amanda says the Dresden Dolls used
5288 to get ten emails per week from fans asking if they could use their music
5289 for different projects. They said yes to all of the requests, as long as it
5290 wasn’t for a completely for-profit venture. At the time, they used a
5291 short-form agreement written by Amanda herself. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I made everyone sign
5292 that contract so at least I wouldn’t be leaving the band vulnerable to
5293 someone later going on and putting our music in a Camel cigarette
5294 ad,</span>”</span> Amanda said. Once she discovered Creative Commons, adopting the
5295 licenses was an easy decision because it gave them a more formal,
5296 standardized way of doing what they had been doing all along. The
5297 NonCommercial licenses were a natural fit.
5298     </p><p>
5299       Amanda embraces the way her fans share and build upon her music.  In The Art
5300 of Asking, she wrote that some of her fans’ unofficial videos using her
5301 music surpass the official videos in number of views on YouTube. Rather than
5302 seeing this sort of thing as competition, Amanda celebrates it. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We
5303 got into this because we wanted to share the joy of music,</span>”</span> she said.
5304     </p><p>
5305       This is symbolic of how nearly everything she does in her career is
5306 motivated by a desire to connect with her fans. At the start of her career,
5307 she and the band would throw concerts at house parties. As the gatherings
5308 grew, the line between fans and friends was completely blurred. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Not
5309 only did most our early fans know where I lived and where we practiced, but
5310 most of them had also been in my kitchen,</span>”</span> Amanda wrote in The Art of
5311 Asking.
5312     </p><p>
5313       Even though her fan base is now huge and global, she continues to seek this
5314 sort of human connection with her fans. She seeks out face-to-face contact
5315 with her fans every chance she can get. Her hugely successful Kickstarter
5316 featured fifty concerts at house parties for backers. She spends hours in
5317 the signing line after shows. It helps that Amanda has the kind of dynamic,
5318 engaging personality that instantly draws people to her, but a big component
5319 of her ability to connect with people is her willingness to
5320 listen. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Listening fast and caring immediately is a skill unto
5321 itself,</span>”</span> Amanda wrote.
5322     </p><p>
5323       Another part of the connection fans feel with Amanda is how much they know
5324 about her life. Rather than trying to craft a public persona or image, she
5325 essentially lives her life as an open book.  She has written openly about
5326 incredibly personal events in her life, and she isn’t afraid to be
5327 vulnerable. Having that kind of trust in her fans—the trust it takes to be
5328 truly honest—begets trust from her fans in return. When she meets fans for
5329 the first time after a show, they can legitimately feel like they know her.
5330     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">With social media, we’re so concerned with the picture looking
5331 palatable and consumable that we forget that being human and showing the
5332 flaws and exposing the vulnerability actually create a deeper connection
5333 than just looking fantastic,</span>”</span> Amanda said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Everything in our
5334 culture is telling us otherwise. But my experience has shown me that the
5335 risk of making yourself vulnerable is almost always worth it.</span>”</span>
5336     </p><p>
5337       Not only does she disclose intimate details of her life to them, she sleeps
5338 on their couches, listens to their stories, cries with them. In short, she
5339 treats her fans like friends in nearly every possible way, even when they
5340 are complete strangers. This mentality—that fans are friends—is completely
5341 intertwined with Amanda’s success as an artist. It is also intertwined with
5342 her use of Creative Commons licenses. Because that is what you do with your
5343 friends—you share.
5344     </p><p>
5345       After years of investing time and energy into building trust with her fans,
5346 she has a strong enough relationship with them to ask for support—through
5347 pay-what-you-want donations, Kickstarter, Patreon, or even asking them to
5348 lend a hand at a concert. As Amanda explains it, crowdfunding (which is
5349 really what all of these different things are) is about asking for support
5350 from people who know and trust you. People who feel personally invested in
5351 your success.
5352     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">When you openly, radically trust people, they not only take care of
5353 you, they become your allies, your family,</span>”</span> she wrote. There really
5354 is a feeling of solidarity within her core fan base. From the beginning,
5355 Amanda and her band encouraged people to dress up for their shows. They
5356 consciously cultivated a feeling of belonging to their <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">weird little
5357 family.</span>”</span>
5358     </p><p>
5359       This sort of intimacy with fans is not possible or even desirable for every
5360 creator. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I don’t take for granted that I happen to be the type of
5361 person who loves cavorting with strangers,</span>”</span> Amanda said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I
5362 recognize that it’s not necessarily everyone’s idea of a good time. Everyone
5363 does it differently. Replicating what I have done won’t work for others if
5364 it isn’t joyful to them. It’s about finding a way to channel energy in a way
5365 that is joyful to you.</span>”</span>
5366     </p><p>
5367       Yet while Amanda joyfully interacts with her fans and involves them in her
5368 work as much as possible, she does keep one job primarily to herself—writing
5369 the music. She loves the creativity with which her fans use and adapt her
5370 work, but she intentionally does not involve them at the first stage of
5371 creating her artistic work. And, of course, the songs and music are what
5372 initially draw people to Amanda Palmer. It is only once she has connected to
5373 people through her music that she can then begin to build ties with them on
5374 a more personal level, both in person and online. In her book, Amanda
5375 describes it as casting a net. It starts with the art and then the bond
5376 strengthens with human connection.
5377     </p><p>
5378       For Amanda, the entire point of being an artist is to establish and maintain
5379 this connection. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It sounds so corny,</span>”</span> she said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">but my
5380 experience in forty years on this planet has pointed me to an obvious
5381 truth—that connection with human beings feels so much better and more
5382 fulfilling than approaching art through a capitalist lens. There is no more
5383 satisfying end goal than having someone tell you that what you do is
5384 genuinely of value to them.</span>”</span>
5385     </p><p>
5386       As she explains it, when a fan gives her a ten-dollar bill, usually what
5387 they are saying is that the money symbolizes some deeper value the music
5388 provided them. For Amanda, art is not just a product; it’s a
5389 relationship. Viewed from this lens, what Amanda does today is not that
5390 different from what she did as a young street performer. She shares her
5391 music and other artistic gifts.  She shares herself. And then rather than
5392 forcing people to help her, she lets them.
5393     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1718" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1718" class="para"><sup class="para">[140] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2015/04/16/amanda-palmer-uncut-the-kickstarter-queen-on-spotify-patreon-and-taylor-swift/#44e20ce46d67" target="_top">http://www.forbes.com/sites/zackomalleygreenburg/2015/04/16/amanda-palmer-uncut-the-kickstarter-queen-on-spotify-patreon-and-taylor-swift/#44e20ce46d67</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="plos-public-library-of-science"></a>第 20 章 PLOS (Public Library of Science)</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
5394         PLOS (Public Library of Science) is a nonprofit that publishes a library of
5395 academic journals and other scientific literature.  Founded in 2000 in the
5396 U.S.
5397       </p><p>
5398           <a class="ulink" href="http://plos.org" target="_top">http://plos.org</a>
5399         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging content creators
5400 an author processing charge to be featured in the journal
5401       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: March 7, 2016
5402       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Louise Page, publisher
5403       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
5404     \textit{
5405         Profile written by Paul Stacey
5406       }
5407     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
5408       The Public Library of Science (PLOS) began in 2000 when three leading
5409 scientists—Harold E. Varmus, Patrick O. Brown, and Michael Eisen—started an
5410 online petition. They were calling for scientists to stop submitting papers
5411 to journals that didn’t make the full text of their papers freely available
5412 immediately or within six months. Although tens of thousands signed the
5413 petition, most did not follow through. In August 2001, Patrick and Michael
5414 announced that they would start their own nonprofit publishing operation to
5415 do just what the petition promised. With start-up grant support from the
5416 Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, PLOS was launched to provide new
5417 open-access journals for biomedicine, with research articles being released
5418 under Attribution (CC BY) licenses.
5419     </p><p>
5420       Traditionally, academic publishing begins with an author submitting a
5421 manuscript to a publisher. After in-house technical and ethical
5422 considerations, the article is then peer-reviewed to determine if the
5423 quality of the work is acceptable for publishing.  Once accepted, the
5424 publisher takes the article through the process of copyediting, typesetting,
5425 and eventual publishing in a print or online publication. Traditional
5426 journal publishers recover costs and earn profit by charging a subscription
5427 fee to libraries or an access fee to users wanting to read the journal or
5428 article.
5429     </p><p>
5430       For Louise Page, the current publisher of PLOS, this traditional model
5431 results in inequity. Access is restricted to those who can pay. Most
5432 research is funded through government-appointed agencies, that is, with
5433 public funds. It’s unjust that the public who funded the research would be
5434 required to pay again to access the results. Not everyone can afford the
5435 ever-escalating subscription fees publishers charge, especially when library
5436 budgets are being reduced. Restricting access to the results of scientific
5437 research slows the dissemination of this research and advancement of the
5438 field. It was time for a new model.
5439     </p><p>
5440       That new model became known as open access. That is, free and open
5441 availability on the Internet. Open-access research articles are not behind a
5442 paywall and do not require a login. A key benefit of open access is that it
5443 allows people to freely use, copy, and distribute the articles, as they are
5444 primarily published under an Attribution (CC BY) license (which only
5445 requires the user to provide appropriate attribution). And more importantly,
5446 policy makers, clinicians, entrepreneurs, educators, and students around the
5447 world have free and timely access to the latest research immediately on
5448 publication.
5449     </p><p>
5450       However, open access requires rethinking the business model of research
5451 publication. Rather than charge a subscription fee to access the journal,
5452 PLOS decided to turn the model on its head and charge a publication fee,
5453 known as an article-processing charge.  This up-front fee, generally paid by
5454 the funder of the research or the author’s institution, covers the expenses
5455 such as editorial oversight, peer-review management, journal production,
5456 online hosting, and support for discovery. Fees are per article and are
5457 billed upon acceptance for publishing. There are no additional charges based
5458 on word length, figures, or other elements.
5459     </p><p>
5460       Calculating the article-processing charge involves taking all the costs
5461 associated with publishing the journal and determining a cost per article
5462 that collectively recovers costs. For PLOS’s journals in biology, medicine,
5463 genetics, computational biology, neglected tropical diseases, and pathogens,
5464 the article-processing charge ranges from $2,250 to
5465 $2,900. Article-publication charges for PLOS ONE, a journal started in 2006,
5466 are just under $1,500.
5467     </p><p>
5468       PLOS believes that lack of funds should not be a barrier to
5469 publication. Since its inception, PLOS has provided fee support for
5470 individuals and institutions to help authors who can’t afford the
5471 article-processing charges.
5472     </p><p>
5473       Louise identifies marketing as one area of big difference between PLOS and
5474 traditional journal publishers. Traditional journals have to invest heavily
5475 in staff, buildings, and infrastructure to market their journal and convince
5476 customers to subscribe.  Restricting access to subscribers means that tools
5477 for managing access control are necessary. They spend millions of dollars on
5478 access-control systems, staff to manage them, and sales staff.  With PLOS’s
5479 open-access publishing, there’s no need for these massive expenses; the
5480 articles are free, open, and accessible to all upon
5481 publication. Additionally, traditional publishers tend to spend more on
5482 marketing to libraries, who ultimately pay the subscription fees. PLOS
5483 provides a better service for authors by promoting their research directly
5484 to the research community and giving the authors exposure. And this
5485 encourages other authors to submit their work for publication.
5486     </p><p>
5487       For Louise, PLOS would not exist without the Attribution license (CC
5488 BY). This makes it very clear what rights are associated with the content
5489 and provides a safe way for researchers to make their work available while
5490 ensuring they get recognition (appropriate attribution). For PLOS, all of
5491 this aligns with how they think research content should be published and
5492 disseminated.
5493     </p><p>
5494       PLOS also has a broad open-data policy. To get their research paper
5495 published, PLOS authors must also make their data available in a public
5496 repository and provide a data-availability statement.
5497     </p><p>
5498       Business-operation costs associated with the open-access model still largely
5499 follow the existing publishing model. PLOS journals are online only, but the
5500 editorial, peer-review, production, typesetting, and publishing stages are
5501 all the same as for a traditional publisher. The editorial teams must be top
5502 notch. PLOS has to function as well as or better than other premier
5503 journals, as researchers have a choice about where to publish.
5504     </p><p>
5505       Researchers are influenced by journal rankings, which reflect the place of a
5506 journal within its field, the relative difficulty of being published in that
5507 journal, and the prestige associated with it. PLOS journals rank high, even
5508 though they are relatively new.
5509     </p><p>
5510       The promotion and tenure of researchers are partially based how many times
5511 other researchers cite their articles. Louise says when researchers want to
5512 discover and read the work of others in their field, they go to an online
5513 aggregator or search engine, and not typically to a particular journal. The
5514 CC BY licensing of PLOS research articles ensures easy access for readers
5515 and generates more discovery and citations for authors.
5516     </p><p>
5517       Louise believes that open access has been a huge success, progressing from a
5518 movement led by a small cadre of researchers to something that is now
5519 widespread and used in some form by every journal publisher. PLOS has had a
5520 big impact. In 2012 to 2014, they published more open-access articles than
5521 BioMed Central, the original open-access publisher, or anyone else.
5522     </p><p>
5523       PLOS further disrupted the traditional journal-publishing model by
5524 pioneering the concept of a megajournal. The PLOS ONE megajournal, launched
5525 in 2006, is an open-access peer-reviewed academic journal that is much
5526 larger than a traditional journal, publishing thousands of articles per year
5527 and benefiting from economies of scale. PLOS ONE has a broad scope, covering
5528 science and medicine as well as social sciences and the humanities. The
5529 review and editorial process is less subjective. Articles are accepted for
5530 publication based on whether they are technically sound rather than
5531 perceived importance or relevance. This is very important in the current
5532 debate about the integrity and reproducibility of research because negative
5533 or null results can then be published as well, which are generally rejected
5534 by traditional journals. PLOS ONE, like all the PLOS journals, is online
5535 only with no print version. PLOS passes on the financial savings accrued
5536 through economies of scale to researchers and the public by lowering the
5537 article-processing charges, which are below that of other journals. PLOS ONE
5538 is the biggest journal in the world and has really set the bar for
5539 publishing academic journal articles on a large scale. Other publishers see
5540 the value of the PLOS ONE model and are now offering their own
5541 multidisciplinary forums for publishing all sound science.
5542     </p><p>
5543       Louise outlined some other aspects of the research-journal business model
5544 PLOS is experimenting with, describing each as a kind of slider that could
5545 be adjusted to change current practice.
5546     </p><p>
5547       One slider is time to publication. Time to publication may shorten as
5548 journals get better at providing quicker decisions to authors.  However,
5549 there is always a trade-off with scale, as the bigger the volume of
5550 articles, the more time the approval process inevitably takes.
5551     </p><p>
5552       Peer review is another part of the process that could change. It’s possible
5553 to redefine what peer review actually is, when to review, and what
5554 constitutes the final article for publication. Louise talked about the
5555 potential to shift to an open-review process, placing the emphasis on
5556 transparency rather than double-blind reviews. Louise thinks we’re moving
5557 into a direction where it’s actually beneficial for an author to know who is
5558 reviewing their paper and for the reviewer to know their review will be
5559 public. An open-review process can also ensure everyone gets credit; right
5560 now, credit is limited to the publisher and author.
5561     </p><p>
5562       Louise says research with negative outcomes is almost as important as
5563 positive results. If journals published more research with negative
5564 outcomes, we’d learn from what didn’t work. It could also reduce how much
5565 the research wheel gets reinvented around the world.
5566     </p><p>
5567       Another adjustable practice is the sharing of articles at early preprint
5568 stages. Publication of research in a peer-reviewed journal can take a long
5569 time because articles must undergo extensive peer review. The need to
5570 quickly circulate current results within a scientific community has led to a
5571 practice of distributing pre-print documents that have not yet undergone
5572 peer review. Preprints broaden the peer-review process, allowing authors to
5573 receive early feedback from a wide group of peers, which can help revise and
5574 prepare the article for submission.  Offsetting the advantages of preprints
5575 are author concerns over ensuring their primacy of being first to come up
5576 with findings based on their research. Other researches may see findings the
5577 preprint author has not yet thought of. However, preprints help researchers
5578 get their discoveries out early and establish precedence. A big challenge is
5579 that researchers don’t have a lot of time to comment on preprints.
5580     </p><p>
5581       What constitutes a journal article could also change. The idea of a research
5582 article as printed, bound, and in a library stack is outdated. Digital and
5583 online open up new possibilities, such as a living document evolving over
5584 time, inclusion of audio and video, and interactivity, like discussion and
5585 recommendations. Even the size of what gets published could change. With
5586 these changes the current form factor for what constitutes a research
5587 article would undergo transformation.
5588     </p><p>
5589       As journals scale up, and new journals are introduced, more and more
5590 information is being pushed out to readers, making the experience feel like
5591 drinking from a fire hose. To help mitigate this, PLOS aggregates and
5592 curates content from PLOS journals and their network of blogs.<a href="#ftn.idm1796" class="footnote" name="idm1796"><sup class="footnote">[141]</sup></a> It also offers something called Article-Level
5593 Metrics, which helps users assess research most relevant to the field
5594 itself, based on indicators like usage, citations, social bookmarking and
5595 dissemination activity, media and blog coverage, discussions, and
5596 ratings.<a href="#ftn.idm1799" class="footnote" name="idm1799"><sup class="footnote">[142]</sup></a> Louise believes that the
5597 journal model could evolve to provide a more friendly and interactive user
5598 experience, including a way for readers to communicate with authors.
5599     </p><p>
5600       The big picture for PLOS going forward is to combine and adjust these
5601 experimental practices in ways that continue to improve accessibility and
5602 dissemination of research, while ensuring its integrity and reliability. The
5603 ways they interlink are complex.  The process of change and adjustment is
5604 not linear. PLOS sees itself as a very flexible publisher interested in
5605 exploring all the permutations research-publishing can take, with authors
5606 and readers who are open to experimentation.
5607     </p><p>
5608       For PLOS, success is not about revenue. Success is about proving that
5609 scientific research can be communicated rapidly and economically at scale,
5610 for the benefit of researchers and society.  The CC BY license makes it
5611 possible for PLOS to publish in a way that is unfettered, open, and fast,
5612 while ensuring that the authors get credit for their work. More than two
5613 million scientists, scholars, and clinicians visit PLOS every month, with
5614 more than 135,000 quality articles to peruse for free.
5615     </p><p>
5616       Ultimately, for PLOS, its authors, and its readers, success is about making
5617 research discoverable, available, and reproducible for the advancement of
5618 science.
5619     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1796" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1796" class="para"><sup class="para">[141] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://collections.plos.org" target="_top">http://collections.plos.org</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1799" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1799" class="para"><sup class="para">[142] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://plos.org/article-level-metrics" target="_top">http://plos.org/article-level-metrics</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="rijksmuseum"></a>第 21 章 Rijksmuseum</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
5620         The Rijksmuseum is a Dutch national museum dedicated to art and
5621 history. Founded in 1800 in the Netherlands
5622       </p><p>
5623           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl</a>
5624         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: grants and government
5625 funding, charging for in-person version (museum admission), selling
5626 merchandise
5627       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: December 11, 2015
5628       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Lizzy Jongma, the data
5629 manager of the collections information department
5630       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
5631     \textit{
5632         Profile written by Paul Stacey
5633       }
5634     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
5635       The Rijksmuseum, a national museum in the Netherlands dedicated to art and
5636 history, has been housed in its current building since 1885. The monumental
5637 building enjoyed more than 125 years of intensive use before needing a
5638 thorough overhaul. In 2003, the museum was closed for renovations. Asbestos
5639 was found in the roof, and although the museum was scheduled to be closed
5640 for only three to four years, renovations ended up taking ten years. During
5641 this time, the collection was moved to a different part of Amsterdam, which
5642 created a physical distance with the curators. Out of necessity, they
5643 started digitally photographing the collection and creating metadata
5644 (information about each object to put into a database). With the renovations
5645 going on for so long, the museum became largely forgotten by the public. Out
5646 of these circumstances emerged a new and more open model for the museum.
5647     </p><p>
5648       By the time Lizzy Jongma joined the Rijksmuseum in 2011 as a data manager,
5649 staff were fed up with the situation the museum was in.  They also realized
5650 that even with the new and larger space, it still wouldn’t be able to show
5651 very much of the whole collection—eight thousand of over one million works
5652 representing just 1 percent. Staff began exploring ways to express
5653 themselves, to have something to show for all of the work they had been
5654 doing.  The Rijksmuseum is primarily funded by Dutch taxpayers, so was there
5655 a way for the museum provide benefit to the public while it was closed? They
5656 began thinking about sharing Rijksmuseum’s collection using information
5657 technology. And they put up a card-catalog like database of the entire
5658 collection online.
5659     </p><p>
5660       It was effective but a bit boring. It was just data. A hackathon they were
5661 invited to got them to start talking about events like that as having
5662 potential. They liked the idea of inviting people to do cool stuff with
5663 their collection. What about giving online access to digital representations
5664 of the one hundred most important pieces in the Rijksmuseum collection? That
5665 eventually led to why not put the whole collection online?
5666     </p><p>
5667       Then, Lizzy says, Europeana came along. Europeana is Europe’s digital
5668 library, museum, and archive for cultural heritage.<a href="#ftn.idm1822" class="footnote" name="idm1822"><sup class="footnote">[143]</sup></a> As an online portal to museum collections all
5669 across Europe, Europeana had become an important online platform. In October
5670 2010 Creative Commons released CC0 and its public-domain mark as tools
5671 people could use to identify works as free of known copyright. Europeana was
5672 the first major adopter, using CC0 to release metadata about their
5673 collection and the public domain mark for millions of digital works in their
5674 collection. Lizzy says the Rijksmuseum initially found this change in
5675 business practice a bit scary, but at the same time it stimulated even more
5676 discussion on whether the Rijksmuseum should follow suit.
5677     </p><p>
5678       They realized that they don’t <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">own</span>”</span> the collection and couldn’t
5679 realistically monitor and enforce compliance with the restrictive licensing
5680 terms they currently had in place. For example, many copies and versions of
5681 Vermeer’s Milkmaid (part of their collection) were already online, many of
5682 them of very poor quality. They could spend time and money policing its use,
5683 but it would probably be futile and wouldn’t make people stop using their
5684 images online. They ended up thinking it’s an utter waste of time to hunt
5685 down people who use the Rijksmuseum collection. And anyway, restricting
5686 access meant the people they were frustrating the most were schoolkids.
5687     </p><p>
5688       In 2011 the Rijksmuseum began making their digital photos of works known to
5689 be free of copyright available online, using Creative Commons CC0 to place
5690 works in the public domain. A medium-resolution image was offered for free,
5691 but a high-resolution version cost forty euros. People started paying, but
5692 Lizzy says getting the money was frequently a nightmare, especially from
5693 overseas customers. The administrative costs often offset revenue, and
5694 income above costs was relatively low. In addition, having to pay for an
5695 image of a work in the public domain from a collection owned by the Dutch
5696 government (i.e., paid for by the public) was contentious and frustrating
5697 for some. Lizzy says they had lots of fierce debates about what to do.
5698     </p><p>
5699       In 2013 the Rijksmuseum changed its business model. They Creative Commons
5700 licensed their highest-quality images and released them online for
5701 free. Digitization still cost money, however; they decided to define
5702 discrete digitization projects and find sponsors willing to fund each
5703 project. This turned out to be a successful strategy, generating high
5704 interest from sponsors and lower administrative effort for the
5705 Rijksmuseum. They started out making 150,000 high-quality images of their
5706 collection available, with the goal to eventually have the entire collection
5707 online.
5708     </p><p>
5709       Releasing these high-quality images for free reduced the number of
5710 poor-quality images that were proliferating. The high-quality image of
5711 Vermeer’s Milkmaid, for example, is downloaded two to three thousand times a
5712 month. On the Internet, images from a source like the Rijksmuseum are more
5713 trusted, and releasing them with a Creative Commons CC0 means they can
5714 easily be found in other platforms. For example, Rijksmuseum images are now
5715 used in thousands of Wikipedia articles, receiving ten to eleven million
5716 views per month. This extends Rijksmuseum’s reach far beyond the scope of
5717 its website. Sharing these images online creates what Lizzy calls the
5718 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Mona Lisa effect,</span>”</span> where a work of art becomes so famous that
5719 people want to see it in real life by visiting the actual museum.
5720     </p><p>
5721       Every museum tends to be driven by the number of physical visitors. The
5722 Rijksmuseum is primarily publicly funded, receiving roughly 70 percent of
5723 its operating budget from the government.  But like many museums, it must
5724 generate the rest of the funding through other means. The admission fee has
5725 long been a way to generate revenue generation, including for the
5726 Rijksmuseum.
5727     </p><p>
5728       As museums create a digital presence for themselves and put up digital
5729 representations of their collection online, there’s frequently a worry that
5730 it will lead to a drop in actual physical visits. For the Rijksmuseum, this
5731 has not turned out to be the case. Lizzy told us the Rijksmuseum used to get
5732 about one million visitors a year before closing and now gets more than two
5733 million a year. Making the collection available online has generated
5734 publicity and acts as a form of marketing. The Creative Commons mark
5735 encourages reuse as well. When the image is found on protest leaflets, milk
5736 cartons, and children’s toys, people also see what museum the image comes
5737 from and this increases the museum’s visibility.
5738     </p><p>
5739       In 2011 the Rijksmuseum received €1 million from the Dutch lottery to create
5740 a new web presence that would be different from any other museum’s. In
5741 addition to redesigning their main website to be mobile friendly and
5742 responsive to devices like the iPad, the Rijksmuseum also created the
5743 Rijksstudio, where users and artists could use and do various things with
5744 the Rijksmuseum collection.<a href="#ftn.idm1834" class="footnote" name="idm1834"><sup class="footnote">[144]</sup></a>
5745     </p><p>
5746       The Rijksstudio gives users access to over two hundred thousand high-quality
5747 digital representations of masterworks from the collection. Users can zoom
5748 in to any work and even clip small parts of images they like. Rijksstudio is
5749 a bit like Pinterest.  You can <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">like</span>”</span> works and compile your
5750 personal favorites, and you can share them with friends or download them
5751 free of charge. All the images in the Rijksstudio are copyright and royalty
5752 free, and users are encouraged to use them as they like, for private or even
5753 commercial purposes.
5754     </p><p>
5755       Users have created over 276,000 Rijksstudios, generating their own themed
5756 virtual exhibitions on a wide variety of topics ranging from tapestries to
5757 ugly babies and birds. Sets of images have also been created for educational
5758 purposes including use for school exams.
5759     </p><p>
5760       Some contemporary artists who have works in the Rijksmuseum collection
5761 contacted them to ask why their works were not included in the
5762 Rijksstudio. The answer was that contemporary artists’ works are still bound
5763 by copyright. The Rijksmuseum does encourage contemporary artists to use a
5764 Creative Commons license for their works, usually a CC BY-SA license
5765 (Attribution-ShareAlike), or a CC BY-NC (Attribution-NonCommercial) if they
5766 want to preclude commercial use. That way, their works can be made available
5767 to the public, but within limits the artists have specified.
5768     </p><p>
5769       The Rijksmuseum believes that art stimulates entrepreneurial activity. The
5770 line between creative and commercial can be blurry.  As Lizzy says, even
5771 Rembrandt was commercial, making his livelihood from selling his
5772 paintings. The Rijksmuseum encourages entrepreneurial commercial use of the
5773 images in Rijksstudio.  They’ve even partnered with the DIY marketplace Etsy
5774 to inspire people to sell their creations. One great example you can find on
5775 Etsy is a kimono designed by Angie Johnson, who used an image of an
5776 elaborate cabinet along with an oil painting by Jan Asselijn called The
5777 Threatened Swan.<a href="#ftn.idm1842" class="footnote" name="idm1842"><sup class="footnote">[145]</sup></a>
5778     </p><p>
5779       In 2013 the Rijksmuseum organized their first high-profile design
5780 competition, known as the Rijksstudio Award.<a href="#ftn.idm1846" class="footnote" name="idm1846"><sup class="footnote">[146]</sup></a> With the call to action Make Your Own Masterpiece, the competition
5781 invites the public to use Rijksstudio images to make new creative designs. A
5782 jury of renowned designers and curators selects ten finalists and three
5783 winners. The final award comes with a prize of €10,000. The second edition
5784 in 2015 attracted a staggering 892 top-class entries. Some award winners end
5785 up with their work sold through the Rijksmuseum store, such as the 2014
5786 entry featuring makeup based on a specific color scheme of a work of
5787 art.<a href="#ftn.idm1851" class="footnote" name="idm1851"><sup class="footnote">[147]</sup></a> The Rijksmuseum has been thrilled
5788 with the results.  Entries range from the fun to the weird to the
5789 inspirational. The third international edition of the Rijksstudio Award
5790 started in September 2016.
5791     </p><p>
5792       For the next iteration of the Rijksstudio, the Rijksmuseum is considering an
5793 upload tool, for people to upload their own works of art, and enhanced
5794 social elements so users can interact with each other more.
5795     </p><p>
5796       Going with a more open business model generated lots of publicity for the
5797 Rijksmuseum. They were one of the first museums to open up their collection
5798 (that is, give free access) with high-quality images. This strategy, along
5799 with the many improvements to the Rijksmuseum’s website, dramatically
5800 increased visits to their website from thirty-five thousand visits per month
5801 to three hundred thousand.
5802     </p><p>
5803       The Rijksmuseum has been experimenting with other ways to invite the public
5804 to look at and interact with their collection. On an international day
5805 celebrating animals, they ran a successful bird-themed event. The museum put
5806 together a showing of two thousand works that featured birds and invited
5807 bird-watchers to identify the birds depicted. Lizzy notes that while museum
5808 curators know a lot about the works in their collections, they may not know
5809 about certain details in the paintings such as bird species. Over eight
5810 hundred different birds were identified, including a specific species of
5811 crane bird that was unknown to the scientific community at the time of the
5812 painting.
5813     </p><p>
5814       For the Rijksmuseum, adopting an open business model was scary.  They came
5815 up with many worst-case scenarios, imagining all kinds of awful things
5816 people might do with the museum’s works. But Lizzy says those fears did not
5817 come true because <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">ninety-nine percent of people have respect for
5818 great art.</span>”</span> Many museums think they can make a lot of money by
5819 selling things related to their collection. But in Lizzy’s experience,
5820 museums are usually bad at selling things, and sometimes efforts to generate
5821 a small amount of money block something much bigger—the real value that the
5822 collection has. For Lizzy, clinging to small amounts of revenue is being
5823 penny-wise but pound-foolish. For the Rijksmuseum, a key lesson has been to
5824 never lose sight of its vision for the collection. Allowing access to and
5825 use of their collection has generated great promotional value—far more than
5826 the previous practice of charging fees for access and use. Lizzy sums up
5827 their experience: <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Give away; get something in return.  Generosity
5828 makes people happy to join you and help out.</span>”</span>
5829     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1822" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1822" class="para"><sup class="para">[143] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en" target="_top">http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1834" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1834" class="para"><sup class="para">[144] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1842" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1842" class="para"><sup class="para">[145] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.etsy.com/ca/listing/175696771/fringe-kimono-silk-kimono-kimono-robe" target="_top">http://www.etsy.com/ca/listing/175696771/fringe-kimono-silk-kimono-kimono-robe</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1846" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1846" class="para"><sup class="para">[146] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award</a>; the 2014
5830 award: <a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award-2014" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award-2014</a>;
5831 the 2015 award: <a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award-2015" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/rijksstudio-award-2015</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1851" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1851" class="para"><sup class="para">[147] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/rijksstudio/142328--nominees-rijksstudio-award/creaties/ba595afe-452d-46bd-9c8c-48dcbdd7f0a4" target="_top">http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/nl/rijksstudio/142328--nominees-rijksstudio-award/creaties/ba595afe-452d-46bd-9c8c-48dcbdd7f0a4</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="shareable"></a>第 22 章 Shareable</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
5832         Shareable is an online magazine about sharing. Founded in 2009 in the U.S.
5833       </p><p>
5834           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.shareable.net" target="_top">http://www.shareable.net</a>
5835         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: grant funding,
5836 crowdfunding (project-based), donations, sponsorships
5837       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 24, 2016
5838       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Neal Gorenflo, cofounder and
5839 executive editor
5840       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
5841     \textit{
5842         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
5843       }
5844     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
5845       In 2013, Shareable faced an impasse. The nonprofit online publication had
5846 helped start a sharing movement four years prior, but over time, they
5847 watched one part of the movement stray from its ideals. As giants like Uber
5848 and Airbnb gained ground, attention began to center on the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">sharing
5849 economy</span>”</span> we know now—profit-driven, transactional, and loaded with
5850 venture-capital money. Leaders of corporate start-ups in this domain invited
5851 Shareable to advocate for them. The magazine faced a choice: ride the wave
5852 or stand on principle.
5853     </p><p>
5854       As an organization, Shareable decided to draw a line in the sand.  In 2013,
5855 the cofounder and executive editor Neal Gorenflo wrote an opinion piece in
5856 the PandoDaily that charted Shareable’s new critical stance on the Silicon
5857 Valley version of the sharing economy, while contrasting it with aspects of
5858 the real sharing economy like open-source software, participatory budgeting
5859 (where citizens decide how a public budget is spent), cooperatives, and
5860 more. He wrote, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It’s not so much that collaborative consumption is
5861 dead, it’s more that it risks dying as it gets absorbed by the
5862 <span class="quote">‘<span class="quote">Borg.</span>’</span></span>”</span>
5863     </p><p>
5864       Neal said their public critique of the corporate sharing economy defined
5865 what Shareable was and is. He does not think the magazine would still be
5866 around had they chosen differently. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We would have gotten another type
5867 of audience, but it would have spelled the end of us,</span>”</span> he
5868 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We are a small, mission-driven organization. We would never
5869 have been able to weather the criticism that Airbnb and Uber are getting
5870 now.</span>”</span>
5871     </p><p>
5872       Interestingly, impassioned supporters are only a small sliver of Shareable’s
5873 total audience. Most are casual readers who come across a Shareable story
5874 because it happens to align with a project or interest they have. But
5875 choosing principles over the possibility of riding the coattails of the
5876 major corporate players in the sharing space saved Shareable’s
5877 credibility. Although they became detached from the corporate sharing
5878 economy, the online magazine became the voice of the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">real sharing
5879 economy</span>”</span> and continued to grow their audience.
5880     </p><p>
5881       Shareable is a magazine, but the content they publish is a means to
5882 furthering their role as a leader and catalyst of a movement.  Shareable
5883 became a leader in the movement in 2009. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">At that time, there was a
5884 sharing movement bubbling beneath the surface, but no one was connecting the
5885 dots,</span>”</span> Neal said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We decided to step into that space and take
5886 on that role.</span>”</span> The small team behind the nonprofit publication truly
5887 believed sharing could be central to solving some of the major problems
5888 human beings face—resource inequality, social isolation, and global warming.
5889     </p><p>
5890       They have worked hard to find ways to tell stories that show different
5891 metrics for success. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We wanted to change the notion of what
5892 constitutes the good life,</span>”</span> Neal said. While they started out with a
5893 very broad focus on sharing generally, today they emphasize stories about
5894 the physical commons like <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">sharing cities</span>”</span> (i.e., urban areas
5895 managed in a sustainable, cooperative way), as well as digital platforms
5896 that are run democratically. They particularly focus on how-to content that
5897 help their readers make changes in their own lives and communities.
5898     </p><p>
5899       More than half of Shareable’s stories are written by paid journalists that
5900 are contracted by the magazine.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Particularly in content areas that
5901 are a priority for us, we really want to go deep and control the
5902 quality,</span>”</span> Neal said. The rest of the content is either contributed by
5903 guest writers, often for free, or written by other publications from their
5904 network of content publishers. Shareable is a member of the Post Growth
5905 Alliance, which facilitates the sharing of content and audiences among a
5906 large and growing group of mostly nonprofits.  Each organization gets a
5907 chance to present stories to the group, and the organizations can use and
5908 promote each other’s stories.  Much of the content created by the network is
5909 licensed with Creative Commons.
5910     </p><p>
5911       All of Shareable’s original content is published under the Attribution
5912 license (CC BY), meaning it can be used for any purpose as long as credit is
5913 given to Shareable. Creative Commons licensing is aligned with Shareable’s
5914 vision, mission, and identity. That alone explains the organization’s
5915 embrace of the licenses for their content, but Neal also believes CC
5916 licensing helps them increase their reach. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">By using CC
5917 licensing,</span>”</span> he said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">we realized we could reach far more
5918 people through a formal and informal network of republishers or
5919 affiliates. That has definitely been the case. It’s hard for us to measure
5920 the reach of other media properties, but most of the outlets who republish
5921 our work have much bigger audiences than we do.</span>”</span>
5922     </p><p>
5923       In addition to their regular news and commentary online, Shareable has also
5924 experimented with book publishing. In 2012, they worked with a traditional
5925 publisher to release Share or Die: Voices of the Get Lost Generation in an
5926 Age of Crisis. The CC-licensed book was available in print form for purchase
5927 or online for free. To this day, the book—along with their CC-licensed guide
5928 Policies for Shareable Cities—are two of the biggest generators of traffic
5929 on their website.
5930     </p><p>
5931       In 2016, Shareable self-published a book of curated Shareable stories called
5932 How to: Share, Save Money and Have Fun. The book was available for sale, but
5933 a PDF version of the book was available for free. Shareable plans to offer
5934 the book in upcoming fund-raising campaigns.
5935     </p><p>
5936       This recent book is one of many fund-raising experiments Shareable has
5937 conducted in recent years. Currently, Shareable is primarily funded by
5938 grants from foundations, but they are actively moving toward a more
5939 diversified model. They have organizational sponsors and are working to
5940 expand their base of individual donors.  Ideally, they will eventually be a
5941 hundred percent funded by their audience. Neal believes being fully
5942 community-supported will better represent their vision of the world.
5943     </p><p>
5944       For Shareable, success is very much about their impact on the world. This is
5945 true for Neal, but also for everyone who works for Shareable. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We
5946 attract passionate people,</span>”</span> Neal said.  At times, that means
5947 employees work so hard they burn out. Neal tries to stress to the Shareable
5948 team that another part of success is having fun and taking care of yourself
5949 while you do something you love. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">A central part of human beings is
5950 that we long to be on a great adventure with people we love,</span>”</span> he
5951 said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We are a species who look over the horizon and imagine and
5952 create new worlds, but we also seek the comfort of hearth and home.</span>”</span>
5953     </p><p>
5954       In 2013, Shareable ran its first crowdfunding campaign to launch their
5955 Sharing Cities Network. Neal said at first they were on pace to fail
5956 spectacularly. They called in their advisers in a panic and asked for
5957 help. The advice they received was simple—<span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Sit your ass in a chair and
5958 start making calls.</span>”</span> That’s exactly what they did, and they ended up
5959 reaching their $50,000 goal. Neal said the campaign helped them reach new
5960 people, but the vast majority of backers were people in their existing base.
5961     </p><p>
5962       For Neal, this symbolized how so much of success comes down to
5963 relationships. Over time, Shareable has invested time and energy into the
5964 relationships they have forged with their readers and supporters. They have
5965 also invested resources into building relationships between their readers
5966 and supporters.
5967     </p><p>
5968       Shareable began hosting events in 2010. These events were designed to bring
5969 the sharing community together. But over time they realized they could reach
5970 far more people if they helped their readers to host their own
5971 events. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If we wanted to go big on a conference, there was a huge risk
5972 and huge staffing needs, plus only a fraction of our community could travel
5973 to the event,</span>”</span> Neal said. Enabling others to create their own events
5974 around the globe allowed them to scale up their work more effectively and
5975 reach far more people. Shareable has catalyzed three hundred different
5976 events reaching over twenty thousand people since implementing this strategy
5977 three years ago. Going forward, Shareable is focusing the network on
5978 creating and distributing content meant to spur local action. For instance,
5979 Shareable will publish a new CC-licensed book in 2017 filled with ideas for
5980 their network to implement.
5981     </p><p>
5982       Neal says Shareable stumbled upon this strategy, but it seems to perfectly
5983 encapsulate just how the commons is supposed to work.  Rather than a
5984 one-size-fits-all approach, Shareable puts the tools out there for people
5985 take the ideas and adapt them to their own communities.
5986     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="siyavula"></a>第 23 章 Siyavula</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
5987         Siyavula is a for-profit educational-technology company that creates
5988 textbooks and integrated learning experiences. Founded in 2012 in South
5989 Africa.
5990       </p><p>
5991           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.siyavula.com" target="_top">http://www.siyavula.com</a>
5992         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for custom
5993 services, sponsorships
5994       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: April 5, 2016
5995       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Mark Horner, CEO
5996       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
5997     \textit{
5998         Profile written by Paul Stacey
5999       }
6000     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
6001       Openness is a key principle for Siyavula. They believe that every learner
6002 and teacher should have access to high-quality educational resources, as
6003 this forms the basis for long-term growth and development. Siyavula has been
6004 a pioneer in creating high-quality open textbooks on mathematics and science
6005 subjects for grades 4 to 12 in South Africa.
6006     </p><p>
6007       In terms of creating an open business model that involves Creative Commons,
6008 Siyavula—and its founder, Mark Horner—have been around the block a few
6009 times. Siyavula has significantly shifted directions and strategies to
6010 survive and prosper. Mark says it’s been very organic.
6011     </p><p>
6012       It all started in 2002, when Mark and several other colleagues at the
6013 University of Cape Town in South Africa founded the Free High School Science
6014 Texts project. Most students in South Africa high schools didn’t have access
6015 to high-quality, comprehensive science and math textbooks, so Mark and his
6016 colleagues set out to write them and make them freely available.
6017     </p><p>
6018       As physicists, Mark and his colleagues were advocates of open-source
6019 software. To make the books open and free, they adopted the Free Software
6020 Foundation’s GNU Free Documentation License.<a href="#ftn.idm1924" class="footnote" name="idm1924"><sup class="footnote">[148]</sup></a> They chose LaTeX, a typesetting program used to publish scientific
6021 documents, to author the books. Over a period of five years, the Free High
6022 School Science Texts project produced math and physical-science textbooks
6023 for grades 10 to 12.
6024     </p><p>
6025       In 2007, the Shuttleworth Foundation offered funding support to make the
6026 textbooks available for trial use at more schools.  Surveys before and after
6027 the textbooks were adopted showed there were no substantial criticisms of
6028 the textbooks’ pedagogical content. This pleased both the authors and
6029 Shuttleworth; Mark remains incredibly proud of this accomplishment.
6030     </p><p>
6031       But the development of new textbooks froze at this stage. Mark shifted his
6032 focus to rural schools, which didn’t have textbooks at all, and looked into
6033 the printing and distribution options. A few sponsors came on board but not
6034 enough to meet the need.
6035     </p><p>
6036       In 2007, Shuttleworth and the Open Society Institute convened a group of
6037 open-education activists for a small but lively meeting in Cape Town. One
6038 result was the Cape Town Open Education Declaration, a statement of
6039 principles, strategies, and commitment to help the open-education movement
6040 grow.<a href="#ftn.idm1930" class="footnote" name="idm1930"><sup class="footnote">[149]</sup></a> Shuttleworth also invited Mark to
6041 run a project writing open content for all subjects for K–12 in
6042 English. That project became Siyavula.
6043     </p><p>
6044       They wrote six original textbooks. A small publishing company offered
6045 Shuttleworth the option to buy out the publisher’s existing K–9 content for
6046 every subject in South African schools in both English and Afrikaans. A deal
6047 was struck, and all the acquired content was licensed with Creative Commons,
6048 significantly expanding the collection beyond the six original books.
6049     </p><p>
6050       Mark wanted to build out the remaining curricula collaboratively through
6051 communities of practice—that is, with fellow educators and writers. Although
6052 sharing is fundamental to teaching, there can be a few challenges when you
6053 create educational resources collectively. One concern is legal. It is
6054 standard practice in education to copy diagrams and snippets of text, but of
6055 course this doesn’t always comply with copyright law. Another concern is
6056 transparency. Sharing what you’ve authored means everyone can see it and
6057 opens you up to criticism. To alleviate these concerns, Mark adopted a
6058 team-based approach to authoring and insisted the curricula be based
6059 entirely on resources with Creative Commons licenses, thereby ensuring they
6060 were safe to share and free from legal repercussions.
6061     </p><p>
6062       Not only did Mark want the resources to be shareable, he wanted all teachers
6063 to be able to remix and edit the content. Mark and his team had to come up
6064 with an open editable format and provide tools for editing. They ended up
6065 putting all the books they’d acquired and authored on a platform called
6066 Connexions.<a href="#ftn.idm1936" class="footnote" name="idm1936"><sup class="footnote">[150]</sup></a> Siyavula trained many
6067 teachers to use Connexions, but it proved to be too complex and the
6068 textbooks were rarely edited.
6069     </p><p>
6070       Then the Shuttleworth Foundation decided to completely restructure its work
6071 as a foundation into a fellowship model (for reasons completely unrelated to
6072 Siyavula). As part of that transition in 2009–10, Mark inherited Siyavula as
6073 an independent entity and took ownership over it as a Shuttleworth fellow.
6074     </p><p>
6075       Mark and his team experimented with several different strategies.  They
6076 tried creating an authoring and hosting platform called Full Marks so that
6077 teachers could share assessment items. They tried creating a service called
6078 Open Press, where teachers could ask for open educational resources to be
6079 aggregated into a package and printed for them. These services never really
6080 panned out.
6081     </p><p>
6082       Then the South African government approached Siyavula with an interest in
6083 printing out the original six Free High School Science Texts (math and
6084 physical-science textbooks for grades 10 to 12)  for all high school
6085 students in South Africa. Although at this point Siyavula was a bit
6086 discouraged by open educational resources, they saw this as a big
6087 opportunity.
6088     </p><p>
6089       They began to conceive of the six books as having massive marketing
6090 potential for Siyavula. Printing Siyavula books for every kid in South
6091 Africa would give their brand huge exposure and could drive vast amounts of
6092 traffic to their website. In addition to print books, Siyavula could also
6093 make the books available on their website, making it possible for learners
6094 to access them using any device—computer, tablet, or mobile phone.
6095     </p><p>
6096       Mark and his team began imagining what they could develop beyond what was in
6097 the textbooks as a service they charge for. One key thing you can’t do well
6098 in a printed textbook is demonstrate solutions. Typically, a one-line answer
6099 is given at the end of the book but nothing on the process for arriving at
6100 that solution.  Mark and his team developed practice items and detailed
6101 solutions, giving learners plenty of opportunity to test out what they’ve
6102 learned. Furthermore, an algorithm could adapt these practice items to the
6103 individual needs of each learner. They called this service Intelligent
6104 Practice and embedded links to it in the open textbooks.
6105     </p><p>
6106       The costs for using Intelligent Practice were set very low, making it
6107 accessible even to those with limited financial means. Siyavula was going
6108 for large volumes and wide-scale use rather than an expensive product
6109 targeting only the high end of the market.
6110     </p><p>
6111       The government distributed the books to 1.5 million students, but there was
6112 an unexpected wrinkle: the books were delivered late.  Rather than wait,
6113 schools who could afford it provided students with a different textbook. The
6114 Siyavula books were eventually distributed, but with well-off schools mainly
6115 using a different book, the primary market for Siyavula’s Intelligent
6116 Practice service inadvertently became low-income learners.
6117     </p><p>
6118       Siyavula’s site did see a dramatic increase in traffic. They got five
6119 hundred thousand visitors per month to their math site and the same number
6120 to their science site. Two-fifths of the traffic was reading on a
6121 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">feature phone</span>”</span> (a nonsmartphone with no apps). People on basic
6122 phones were reading math and science on a two-inch screen at all hours of
6123 the day. To Mark, it was quite amazing and spoke to a need they were
6124 servicing.
6125     </p><p>
6126       At first, the Intelligent Practice services could only be paid using a
6127 credit card. This proved problematic, especially for those in the low-income
6128 demographic, as credit cards were not prevalent.  Mark says Siyavula got a
6129 harsh business-model lesson early on. As he describes it, it’s not just
6130 about product, but how you sell it, who the market is, what the price is,
6131 and what the barriers to entry are.
6132     </p><p>
6133       Mark describes this as the first version of Siyavula’s business model: open
6134 textbooks serving as marketing material and driving traffic to your site,
6135 where you can offer a related service and convert some people into a paid
6136 customer.
6137     </p><p>
6138       For Mark a key decision for Siyavula’s business was to focus on how they can
6139 add value on top of their basic service. They’ll charge only if they are
6140 adding unique value. The actual content of the textbook isn’t unique at all,
6141 so Siyavula sees no value in locking it down and charging for it. Mark
6142 contrasts this with traditional publishers who charge over and over again
6143 for the same content without adding value.
6144     </p><p>
6145       Version two of Siyavula’s business model was a big, ambitious idea—scale
6146 up. They also decided to sell the Intelligent Practice service to schools
6147 directly. Schools can subscribe on a per-student, per-subject basis. A
6148 single subscription gives a learner access to a single subject, including
6149 practice content from every grade available for that subject. Lower
6150 subscription rates are provided when there are over two hundred students,
6151 and big schools have a price cap. A 40 percent discount is offered to
6152 schools where both the science and math departments subscribe.
6153     </p><p>
6154       Teachers get a dashboard that allows them to monitor the progress of an
6155 entire class or view an individual learner’s results. They can see the
6156 questions that learners are working on, identify areas of difficulty, and be
6157 more strategic in their teaching. Students also have their own personalized
6158 dashboard, where they can view the sections they’ve practiced, how many
6159 points they’ve earned, and how their performance is improving.
6160     </p><p>
6161       Based on the success of this effort, Siyavula decided to substantially
6162 increase the production of open educational resources so they could provide
6163 the Intelligent Practice service for a wider range of books. Grades 10 to 12
6164 math and science books were reworked each year, and new books created for
6165 grades 4 to 6 and later grades 7 to 9.
6166     </p><p>
6167       In partnership with, and sponsored by, the Sasol Inzalo Foundation, Siyavula
6168 produced a series of natural sciences and technology workbooks for grades 4
6169 to 6 called Thunderbolt Kids that uses a fun comic-book style.<a href="#ftn.idm1955" class="footnote" name="idm1955"><sup class="footnote">[151]</sup></a> It’s a complete curriculum that also comes with
6170 teacher’s guides and other resources.
6171     </p><p>
6172       Through this experience, Siyavula learned they could get sponsors to help
6173 fund openly licensed textbooks. It helped that Siyavula had by this time
6174 nailed the production model. It cost roughly $150,000 to produce a book in
6175 two languages. Sponsors liked the social-benefit aspect of textbooks
6176 unlocked via a Creative Commons license. They also liked the exposure their
6177 brand got. For roughly $150,000, their logo would be visible on books
6178 distributed to over one million students.
6179     </p><p>
6180       The Siyavula books that are reviewed, approved, and branded by the
6181 government are freely and openly available on Siyavula’s website under an
6182 Attribution-NoDerivs license (CC BY-ND) —NoDerivs means that these books
6183 cannot be modified. Non-government-branded books are available under an
6184 Attribution license (CC BY), allowing others to modify and redistribute the
6185 books.
6186     </p><p>
6187       Although the South African government paid to print and distribute hard
6188 copies of the books to schoolkids, Siyavula itself received no funding from
6189 the government. Siyavula initially tried to convince the government to
6190 provide them with five rand per book (about US35¢). With those funds, Mark
6191 says that Siyavula could have run its entire operation, built a
6192 community-based model for producing more books, and provide Intelligent
6193 Practice for free to every child in the country. But after a lengthy
6194 negotiation, the government said no.
6195     </p><p>
6196       Using Siyavula books generated huge savings for the government.  Providing
6197 students with a traditionally published grade 12 science or math textbook
6198 costs around 250 rand per book (about US$18).  Providing the Siyavula
6199 version cost around 36 rand (about $2.60), a savings of over 200 rand per
6200 book. But none of those savings were passed on to Siyavula. In retrospect,
6201 Mark thinks this may have turned out in their favor as it allowed them to
6202 remain independent from the government.
6203     </p><p>
6204       Just as Siyavula was planning to scale up the production of open textbooks
6205 even more, the South African government changed its textbook policy. To save
6206 costs, the government declared there would be only one authorized textbook
6207 for each grade and each subject. There was no guarantee that Siyavula’s
6208 would be chosen.  This scared away potential sponsors.
6209     </p><p>
6210       Rather than producing more textbooks, Siyavula focused on improving its
6211 Intelligent Practice technology for its existing books. Mark calls this
6212 version three of Siyavula’s business model—focusing on the technology that
6213 provides the revenue-generating service and generating more users of this
6214 service. Version three got a significant boost in 2014 with an investment by
6215 the Omidyar Network (the philanthropic venture started by eBay founder
6216 Pierre Omidyar and his spouse), and continues to be the model Siyavula uses
6217 today.
6218     </p><p>
6219       Mark says sales are way up, and they are really nailing Intelligent
6220 Practice. Schools continue to use their open textbooks. The
6221 government-announced policy that there would be only one textbook per
6222 subject turned out to be highly contentious and is in limbo.
6223     </p><p>
6224       Siyavula is exploring a range of enhancements to their business model. These
6225 include charging a small amount for assessment services provided over the
6226 phone, diversifying their market to all English-speaking countries in
6227 Africa, and setting up a consortium that makes Intelligent Practice free to
6228 all kids by selling the nonpersonal data Intelligent Practice collects.
6229     </p><p>
6230       Siyavula is a for-profit business but one with a social mission.  Their
6231 shareholders’ agreement lists lots of requirements around openness for
6232 Siyavula, including stipulations that content always be put under an open
6233 license and that they can’t charge for something that people volunteered to
6234 do for them. They believe each individual should have access to the
6235 resources and support they need to achieve the education they
6236 deserve. Having educational resources openly licensed with Creative Commons
6237 means they can fulfill their social mission, on top of which they can build
6238 revenue-generating services to sustain the ongoing operation of Siyavula. In
6239 terms of open business models, Mark and Siyavula may have been around the
6240 block a few times, but both he and the company are stronger for it.
6241     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm1924" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1924" class="para"><sup class="para">[148] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl" target="_top">http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1930" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1930" class="para"><sup class="para">[149] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.capetowndeclaration.org" target="_top">http://www.capetowndeclaration.org</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1936" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1936" class="para"><sup class="para">[150] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://cnx.org" target="_top">http://cnx.org</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm1955" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm1955" class="para"><sup class="para">[151] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.siyavula.com/products-primary-school.html" target="_top">http://www.siyavula.com/products-primary-school.html</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="sparkfun"></a>第 24 章 SparkFun</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
6242         SparkFun is an online electronics retailer specializing in open
6243 hardware. Founded in 2003 in the U.S.
6244       </p><p>
6245           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.sparkfun.com" target="_top">http://www.sparkfun.com</a>
6246         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging for physical
6247 copies (electronics sales)
6248       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: February 29, 2016
6249       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Nathan Seidle, founder
6250       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
6251     \textit{
6252         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
6253       }
6254     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
6255       SparkFun founder and former CEO Nathan Seidle has a picture of himself
6256 holding up a clone of a SparkFun product in an electronics market in China,
6257 with a huge grin on his face. He was traveling in China when he came across
6258 their LilyPad wearable technology being made by someone else. His reaction
6259 was glee.
6260     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Being copied is the greatest earmark of flattery and success,</span>”</span>
6261 Nathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I thought it was so cool that they were selling to a
6262 market we were never going to get access to otherwise. It was evidence of
6263 our impact on the world.</span>”</span>
6264     </p><p>
6265       This worldview runs through everything SparkFun does. SparkFun is an
6266 electronics manufacturer. The company sells its products directly to the
6267 public online, and it bundles them with educational tools to sell to schools
6268 and teachers. SparkFun applies Creative Commons licenses to all of its
6269 schematics, images, tutorial content, and curricula, so anyone can make
6270 their products on their own. Being copied is part of the design.
6271     </p><p>
6272       Nathan believes open licensing is good for the world. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It touches on
6273 our natural human instinct to share,</span>”</span> he said.  But he also strongly
6274 believes it makes SparkFun better at what they do. They encourage copying,
6275 and their products are copied at a very fast rate, often within ten to
6276 twelve weeks of release.  This forces the company to compete on something
6277 other than product design, or what most commonly consider their intellectual
6278 property.
6279     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We compete on business principles,</span>”</span> Nathan said.
6280 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Claiming your territory with intellectual property allows you to get
6281 comfy and rest on your laurels. It gives you a safety net. We took away that
6282 safety net.</span>”</span>
6283     </p><p>
6284       The result is an intense company-wide focus on product development and
6285 improvement. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Our products are so much better than they were five
6286 years ago,</span>”</span> Nathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We used to just sell products. Now
6287 it’s a product plus a video, a seventeen-page hookup guide, and example
6288 firmware on three different platforms to get you up and running faster. We
6289 have gotten better because we had to in order to compete. As painful as it
6290 is for us, it’s better for the customers.</span>”</span>
6291     </p><p>
6292       SparkFun parts are available on eBay for lower prices. But people come
6293 directly to SparkFun because SparkFun makes their lives easier. The example
6294 code works; there is a service number to call; they ship replacement parts
6295 the day they get a service call. They invest heavily in service and
6296 support. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">I don’t believe businesses should be competing with IP
6297 [intellectual property] barriers,</span>”</span> Nathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">This is the
6298 stuff they should be competing on.</span>”</span>
6299     </p><p>
6300       SparkFun’s company history began in Nathan’s college dorm room. He spent a
6301 lot of time experimenting with and building electronics, and he realized
6302 there was a void in the market. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If you wanted to place an order for
6303 something,</span>”</span> he said, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">you first had to search far and wide to
6304 find it, and then you had to call or fax someone.</span>”</span> In 2003, during
6305 his third year of college, he registered <a class="ulink" href="http://sparkfun.com" target="_top">http://sparkfun.com</a>
6306 and started reselling products out of his bedroom. After he graduated, he
6307 started making and selling his own products.
6308     </p><p>
6309       Once he started designing his own products, he began putting the software
6310 and schematics online to help with technical support.  After doing some
6311 research on licensing options, he chose Creative Commons licenses because he
6312 was drawn to the <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">human-readable deeds</span>”</span> that explain the
6313 licensing terms in simple terms.  SparkFun still uses CC licenses for all of
6314 the schematics and firmware for the products they create.
6315     </p><p>
6316       The company has grown from a solo project to a corporation with 140
6317 employees. In 2015, SparkFun earned $33 million in revenue.  Selling
6318 components and widgets to hobbyists, professionals, and artists remains a
6319 major part of SparkFun’s business. They sell their own products, but they
6320 also partner with Arduino (also profiled in this book) by manufacturing
6321 boards for resale using Arduino’s brand.
6322     </p><p>
6323       SparkFun also has an educational department dedicated to creating a hands-on
6324 curriculum to teach students about electronics using prototyping
6325 parts. Because SparkFun has always been dedicated to enabling others to
6326 re-create and fix their products on their own, the more recent focus on
6327 introducing young people to technology is a natural extension of their core
6328 business.
6329     </p><p><span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We have the burden and opportunity to educate the next generation of
6330 technical citizens,</span>”</span> Nathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Our goal is to affect the
6331 lives of three hundred and fifty thousand high school students by
6332 2020.</span>”</span>
6333     </p><p>
6334       The Creative Commons license underlying all of SparkFun’s products is
6335 central to this mission. The license not only signals a willingness to
6336 share, but it also expresses a desire for others to get in and tinker with
6337 their products, both to learn and to make their products better. SparkFun
6338 uses the Attribution-ShareAlike license (CC BY-SA), which is a
6339 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">copyleft</span>”</span> license that allows people to do anything with the
6340 content as long as they provide credit and make any adaptations available
6341 under the same licensing terms.
6342     </p><p>
6343       From the beginning, Nathan has tried to create a work environment at
6344 SparkFun that he himself would want to work in. The result is what appears
6345 to be a pretty fun workplace. The U.S. company is based in Boulder,
6346 Colorado. They have an eighty-thousand-square-foot facility (approximately
6347 seventy-four-hundred square meters), where they design and manufacture their
6348 products. They offer public tours of the space several times a week, and
6349 they open their doors to the public for a competition once a year.
6350     </p><p>
6351       The public event, called the Autonomous Vehicle Competition, brings in a
6352 thousand to two thousand customers and other technology enthusiasts from
6353 around the area to race their own self-created bots against each other,
6354 participate in training workshops, and socialize. From a business
6355 perspective, Nathan says it’s a terrible idea. But they don’t hold the event
6356 for business reasons. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The reason we do it is because I get to travel
6357 and have interactions with our customers all the time, but most of our
6358 employees don’t,</span>”</span> he said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">This event gives our employees the
6359 opportunity to get face-to-face contact with our customers.</span>”</span> The
6360 event infuses their work with a human element, which makes it more
6361 meaningful.
6362     </p><p>
6363       Nathan has worked hard to imbue a deeper meaning into the work SparkFun
6364 does. The company is, of course, focused on being fiscally responsible, but
6365 they are ultimately driven by something other than money. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Profit is
6366 not the goal; it is the outcome of a well-executed plan,</span>”</span> Nathan
6367 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We focus on having a bigger impact on the world.</span>”</span> Nathan
6368 believes they get some of the brightest and most amazing employees because
6369 they aren’t singularly focused on the bottom line.
6370     </p><p>
6371       The company is committed to transparency and shares all of its financials
6372 with its employees. They also generally strive to avoid being another
6373 soulless corporation. They actively try to reveal the humans behind the
6374 company, and they work to ensure people coming to their site don’t find only
6375 unchanging content.
6376     </p><p>
6377       SparkFun’s customer base is largely made up of industrious electronics
6378 enthusiasts. They have customers who are regularly involved in the company’s
6379 customer support, independently responding to questions in forums and
6380 product-comment sections.  Customers also bring product ideas to the
6381 company. SparkFun regularly sifts through suggestions from customers and
6382 tries to build on them where they can. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">From the beginning, we have
6383 been listening to the community,</span>”</span> Nathan said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Customers
6384 would identify a pain point, and we would design something to address
6385 it.</span>”</span>
6386     </p><p>
6387       However, this sort of customer engagement does not always translate to
6388 people actively contributing to SparkFun’s projects.  The company has a
6389 public repository of software code for each of its devices online. On a
6390 particularly active project, there will only be about two dozen people
6391 contributing significant improvements. The vast majority of projects are
6392 relatively untouched by the public. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is a theory that if you
6393 open-source it, they will come,</span>”</span> Nathan said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">That’s not
6394 really true.</span>”</span>
6395     </p><p>
6396       Rather than focusing on cocreation with their customers, SparkFun instead
6397 focuses on enabling people to copy, tinker, and improve products on their
6398 own. They heavily invest in tutorials and other material designed to help
6399 people understand how the products work so they can fix and improve things
6400 independently. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">What gives me joy is when people take open-source
6401 layouts and then build their own circuit boards from our designs,</span>”</span>
6402 Nathan said.
6403     </p><p>
6404       Obviously, opening up the design of their products is a necessary step if
6405 their goal is to empower the public. Nathan also firmly believes it makes
6406 them more money because it requires them to focus on how to provide maximum
6407 value. Rather than designing a new product and protecting it in order to
6408 extract as much money as possible from it, they release the keys necessary
6409 for others to build it themselves and then spend company time and resources
6410 on innovation and service. From a short-term perspective, SparkFun may lose
6411 a few dollars when others copy their products. But in the long run, it makes
6412 them a more nimble, innovative business. In other words, it makes them the
6413 kind of company they set out to be.
6414     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="teachaids"></a>第 25 章 TeachAIDS</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
6415         TeachAIDS is a nonprofit that creates educational materials designed to
6416 teach people around the world about HIV and AIDS.  Founded in 2005 in the
6417 U.S.
6418       </p><p>
6419           <a class="ulink" href="http://teachaids.org" target="_top">http://teachaids.org</a>
6420         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: sponsorships
6421       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: March 24, 2016
6422       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: Piya Sorcar, the CEO, and
6423 Shuman Ghosemajumder, the chair
6424       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
6425     \textit{
6426         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
6427       }
6428     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
6429       TeachAIDS is an unconventional media company with a conventional revenue
6430 model. Like most media companies, they are subsidized by
6431 advertising. Corporations pay to have their logos appear on the educational
6432 materials TeachAIDS distributes.
6433     </p><p>
6434       But unlike most media companies, Teach-AIDS is a nonprofit organization with
6435 a purely social mission. TeachAIDS is dedicated to educating the global
6436 population about HIV and AIDS, particularly in parts of the world where
6437 education efforts have been historically unsuccessful. Their educational
6438 content is conveyed through interactive software, using methods based on the
6439 latest research about how people learn. TeachAIDS serves content in more
6440 than eighty countries around the world. In each instance, the content is
6441 translated to the local language and adjusted to conform to local norms and
6442 customs. All content is free and made available under a Creative Commons
6443 license.
6444     </p><p>
6445       TeachAIDS is a labor of love for founder and CEO Piya Sorcar, who earns a
6446 salary of one dollar per year from the nonprofit. The project grew out of
6447 research she was doing while pursuing her doctorate at Stanford
6448 University. She was reading reports about India, noting it would be the next
6449 hot zone of people living with HIV. Despite international and national
6450 entities pouring in hundreds of millions of dollars on HIV-prevention
6451 efforts, the reports showed knowledge levels were still low. People were
6452 unaware of whether the virus could be transmitted through coughing and
6453 sneezing, for instance. Supported by an interdisciplinary team of experts at
6454 Stanford, Piya conducted similar studies, which corroborated the previous
6455 research. They found that the primary cause of the limited understanding was
6456 that HIV, and issues relating to it, were often considered too taboo to
6457 discuss comprehensively. The other major problem was that most of the
6458 education on this topic was being taught through television advertising,
6459 billboards, and other mass-media campaigns, which meant people were only
6460 receiving bits and pieces of information.
6461     </p><p>
6462       In late 2005, Piya and her team used research-based design to create new
6463 educational materials and worked with local partners in India to help
6464 distribute them. As soon as the animated software was posted online, Piya’s
6465 team started receiving requests from individuals and governments who were
6466 interested in bringing this model to more countries. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We realized
6467 fairly quickly that educating large populations about a topic that was
6468 considered taboo would be challenging. We began by identifying optimal local
6469 partners and worked toward creating an effective, culturally appropriate
6470 education,</span>”</span> Piya said.
6471     </p><p>
6472       Very shortly after the initial release, Piya’s team decided to spin the
6473 endeavor into an independent nonprofit out of Stanford University. They also
6474 decided to use Creative Commons licenses on the materials.
6475     </p><p>
6476       Given their educational mission, TeachAIDS had an obvious interest in seeing
6477 the materials as widely shared as possible. But they also needed to preserve
6478 the integrity of the medical information in the content. They chose the
6479 Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license (CC BY-NC-ND), which essentially
6480 gives the public the right to distribute only verbatim copies of the
6481 content, and for noncommercial purposes. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We wanted attribution for
6482 TeachAIDS, and we couldn’t stand by derivatives without vetting
6483 them,</span>”</span> the cofounder and chair Shuman Ghosemajumder said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">It
6484 was almost a no-brainer to go with a CC license because it was a
6485 plug-and-play solution to this exact problem. It has allowed us to scale our
6486 materials safely and quickly worldwide while preserving our content and
6487 protecting us at the same time.</span>”</span>
6488     </p><p>
6489       Choosing a license that does not allow adaptation of the content was an
6490 outgrowth of the careful precision with which TeachAIDS crafts their
6491 content. The organization invests heavily in research and testing to
6492 determine the best method of conveying the information. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Creating
6493 high-quality content is what matters most to us,</span>”</span> Piya
6494 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Research drives everything we do.</span>”</span>
6495     </p><p>
6496       One important finding was that people accept the message best when it comes
6497 from familiar voices they trust and admire. To achieve this, TeachAIDS
6498 researches cultural icons that would best resonate with their target
6499 audiences and recruits them to donate their likenesses and voices for use in
6500 the animated software. The celebrities involved vary for each localized
6501 version of the materials.
6502     </p><p>
6503       Localization is probably the single-most important aspect of the way
6504 TeachAIDS creates its content. While each regional version builds from the
6505 same core scientific materials, they pour a lot of resources into
6506 customizing the content for a particular population. Because they use a CC
6507 license that does not allow the public to adapt the content, TeachAIDS
6508 retains careful control over the localization process. The content is
6509 translated into the local language, but there are also changes in substance
6510 and format to reflect cultural differences. This process results in minor
6511 changes, like choosing different idioms based on the local language, and
6512 significant changes, like creating gendered versions for places where people
6513 are more likely to accept information from someone of the same gender.
6514     </p><p>
6515       The localization process relies heavily on volunteers. Their volunteer base
6516 is deeply committed to the cause, and the organization has had better luck
6517 controlling the quality of the materials when they tap volunteers instead of
6518 using paid translators. For quality control, TeachAIDS has three separate
6519 volunteer teams translate the materials from English to the local language
6520 and customize the content based on local customs and norms. Those three
6521 versions are then analyzed and combined into a single master
6522 translation. TeachAIDS has additional teams of volunteers then translate
6523 that version back into English to see how well it lines up with the original
6524 materials. They repeat this process until they reach a translated version
6525 that meets their standards. For the Tibetan version, they went through this
6526 cycle eleven times.
6527     </p><p>
6528       TeachAIDS employs full-time employees, contractors, and volunteers, all in
6529 different capacities and organizational configurations. They are careful to
6530 use people from diverse backgrounds to create the materials, including
6531 teachers, students, and doctors, as well as individuals experienced in
6532 working in the NGO space. This diversity and breadth of knowledge help
6533 ensure their materials resonate with people from all walks of life.
6534 Additionally, TeachAIDS works closely with film writers and directors to
6535 help keep the concepts entertaining and easy to understand. The inclusive,
6536 but highly controlled, creative process is undertaken entirely by people who
6537 are specifically brought on to help with a particular project, rather than
6538 ongoing staff. The final product they create is designed to require zero
6539 training for people to implement in practice. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">In our research, we
6540 found we can’t depend on people passing on the information correctly, even
6541 if they have the best of intentions,</span>”</span> Piya said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We need
6542 materials where you can push play and they will work.</span>”</span>
6543     </p><p>
6544       Piya’s team was able to produce all of these versions over several years
6545 with a head count that never exceeded eight full-time employees. The
6546 organization is able to reduce costs by relying heavily on volunteers and
6547 in-kind donations. Nevertheless, the nonprofit needed a sustainable revenue
6548 model to subsidize content creation and physical distribution of the
6549 materials. Charging even a low price was simply not an
6550 option. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Educators from various nonprofits around the world were just
6551 creating their own materials using whatever they could find for free
6552 online,</span>”</span> Shuman said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The only way to persuade them to use our
6553 highly effective model was to make it completely free.</span>”</span>
6554     </p><p>
6555       Like many content creators offering their work for free, they settled on
6556 advertising as a funding model. But they were extremely careful not to let
6557 the advertising compromise their credibility or undermine the heavy
6558 investment they put into creating quality content. Sponsors of the content
6559 have no ability to influence the substance of the content, and they cannot
6560 even create advertising content. Sponsors only get the right to have their
6561 logo appear before and after the educational content. All of the content
6562 remains branded as TeachAIDS.
6563     </p><p>
6564       TeachAIDS is careful not to seek funding to cover the costs of a specific
6565 project. Instead, sponsorships are structured as unrestricted donations to
6566 the nonprofit. This gives the nonprofit more stability, but even more
6567 importantly, it enables them to subsidize projects being localized for an
6568 area with no sponsors.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">If we just created versions based on where we
6569 could get sponsorships, we would only have materials for wealthier
6570 countries,</span>”</span> Shuman said.
6571     </p><p>
6572       As of 2016, TeachAIDS has dozens of sponsors. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">When we go into a new
6573 country, various companies hear about us and reach out to us,</span>”</span> Piya
6574 said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We don’t have to do much to find or attract them.</span>”</span> They
6575 believe the sponsorships are easy to sell because they offer so much value
6576 to sponsors. TeachAIDS sponsorships give corporations the chance to reach
6577 new eyeballs with their brand, but at a much lower cost than other
6578 advertising channels. The audience for TeachAIDS content also tends to skew
6579 young, which is often a desirable demographic for brands. Unlike traditional
6580 advertising, the content is not time-sensitive, so an investment in a
6581 sponsorship can benefit a brand for many years to come.
6582     </p><p>
6583       Importantly, the value to corporate sponsors goes beyond commercial
6584 considerations. As a nonprofit with a clearly articulated social mission,
6585 corporate sponsorships are donations to a cause. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">This is something
6586 companies can be proud of internally,</span>”</span> Shuman said. Some companies
6587 have even built publicity campaigns around the fact that they have sponsored
6588 these initiatives.
6589     </p><p>
6590       The core mission of TeachAIDS—ensuring global access to life-saving
6591 education—is at the root of everything the organization does. It underpins
6592 the work; it motivates the funders. The CC license on the materials they
6593 create furthers that mission, allowing them to safely and quickly scale
6594 their materials worldwide. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Creative Commons license has been a
6595 game changer for TeachAIDS,</span>”</span> Piya said.
6596     </p></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="tribe-of-noise"></a>第 26 章 Tribe of Noise</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
6597         Tribe of Noise is a for-profit online music platform serving the film, TV,
6598 video, gaming, and in-store-media industries. Founded in 2008 in the
6599 Netherlands.
6600       </p><p>
6601           <a class="ulink" href="http://www.tribeofnoise.com" target="_top">http://www.tribeofnoise.com</a>
6602         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: charging a transaction fee
6603       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: January 26, 2016
6604       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewee</strong></span>: Hessel van Oorschot,
6605 cofounder
6606       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
6607     \textit{
6608         Profile written by Paul Stacey
6609       }
6610     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
6611       In the early 2000s, Hessel van Oorschot was an entrepreneur running a
6612 business where he coached other midsize entrepreneurs how to create an
6613 online business. He also coauthored a number of workbooks for small- to
6614 medium-size enterprises to use to optimize their business for the
6615 Web. Through this early work, Hessel became familiar with the principles of
6616 open licensing, including the use of open-source software and Creative
6617 Commons.
6618     </p><p>
6619       In 2005, Hessel and Sandra Brandenburg launched a niche video-production
6620 initiative. Almost immediately, they ran into issues around finding and
6621 licensing music tracks. All they could find was standard, cold
6622 stock-music. They thought of looking up websites where you could license
6623 music directly from the musician without going through record labels or
6624 agents. But in 2005, the ability to directly license music from a rights
6625 holder was not readily available.
6626     </p><p>
6627       They hired two lawyers to investigate further, and while they uncovered five
6628 or six examples, Hessel found the business models lacking. The lawyers
6629 expressed interest in being their legal team should they decide to pursue
6630 this as an entrepreneurial opportunity. Hessel says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">When lawyers are
6631 interested in a venture like this, you might have something special.</span>”</span>
6632 So after some more research, in early 2008, Hessel and Sandra decided to
6633 build a platform.
6634     </p><p>
6635       Building a platform posed a real chicken-and-egg problem. The platform had
6636 to build an online community of music-rights holders and, at the same time,
6637 provide the community with information and ideas about how the new economy
6638 works. Community willingness to try new music business models requires a
6639 trust relationship.
6640     </p><p>
6641       In July 2008, Tribe of Noise opened its virtual doors with a couple hundred
6642 musicians willing to use the CC BY-SA license (Attribution-ShareAlike) for a
6643 limited part of their repertoire.  The two entrepreneurs wanted to take the
6644 pain away for media makers who wanted to license music and solve the
6645 problems the two had personally experienced finding this music.
6646     </p><p>
6647       As they were growing the community, Hessel got a phone call from a company
6648 that made in-store music playlists asking if they had enough music licensed
6649 with Creative Commons that they could use.  Stores need quality,
6650 good-listening music but not necessarily hits, a bit like a radio show
6651 without the DJ. This opened a new opportunity for Tribe of Noise. They
6652 started their In-store Music Service, using music (licensed with CC BY-SA)
6653 uploaded by the Tribe of Noise community of musicians.<a href="#ftn.idm2090" class="footnote" name="idm2090"><sup class="footnote">[152]</sup></a>
6654     </p><p>
6655       In most countries, artists, authors, and musicians join a collecting society
6656 that manages the licensing and helps collect the royalties. Copyright
6657 collecting societies in the European Union usually hold monopolies in their
6658 respective national markets. In addition, they require their members to
6659 transfer exclusive administration rights to them of all of their works.
6660 This complicates the picture for Tribe of Noise, who wants to represent
6661 artists, or at least a portion of their repertoire.  Hessel and his legal
6662 team reached out to collecting societies, starting with those in the
6663 Netherlands. What would be the best legal way forward that would respect the
6664 wishes of composers and musicians who’d be interested in trying out new
6665 models like the In-store Music Service? Collecting societies at first were
6666 hesitant and said no, but Tribe of Noise persisted arguing that they
6667 primarily work with unknown artists and provide them exposure in parts of
6668 the world where they don’t get airtime normally and a source of revenue—and
6669 this convinced them that it was OK. However, Hessel says, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We are
6670 still fighting for a good cause every single day.</span>”</span>
6671     </p><p>
6672       Instead of building a large sales force, Tribe of Noise partnered with big
6673 organizations who have lots of clients and can act as a kind of Tribe of
6674 Noise reseller. The largest telecom network in the Netherlands, for example,
6675 sells Tribe’s In-store Music Service subscriptions to their business
6676 clients, which include fashion retailers and fitness centers. They have a
6677 similar deal with the leading trade association representing hotels and
6678 restaurants in the country. Hessel hopes to <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">copy and paste</span>”</span>
6679 this service into other countries where collecting societies understand what
6680 you can do with Creative Commons. Outside of the Netherlands, early
6681 adoptions have happened in Scandinavia, Belgium, and the U.S.
6682     </p><p>
6683       Tribe of Noise doesn’t pay the musicians up front; they get paid when their
6684 music ends up in Tribe of Noise’s in-store music channels. The musicians’
6685 share is 42.5 percent. It’s not uncommon in a traditional model for the
6686 artist to get only 5 to 10 percent, so a share of over 40 percent is a
6687 significantly better deal.  Here’s how they give an example on their
6688 website:
6689     </p><p>
6690       A few of your songs [licensed with CC BY-SA], for example five in total, are
6691 selected for a bespoke in-store music channel broadcasting at a large
6692 retailer with 1,000 stores nationwide. In this case the overall playlist
6693 contains 350 songs so the musician’s share is 5/350 = 1.43%. The license fee
6694 agreed with this retailer is US$12 per month per play-out. So if 42.5% is
6695 shared with the Tribe musicians in this playlist and your share is 1.43%,
6696 you end up with US$12 * 1000 stores * 0.425 * 0.0143 = US$73 per
6697 month.<a href="#ftn.idm2099" class="footnote" name="idm2099"><sup class="footnote">[153]</sup></a>
6698     </p><p>
6699       Tribe of Noise has another model that does not involve Creative Commons. In
6700 a survey with members, most said they liked the exposure using Creative
6701 Commons gets them and the way it lets them reach out to others to share and
6702 remix. However, they had a bit of a mental struggle with Creative Commons
6703 licenses being perpetual.  A lot of musicians have the mind-set that one day
6704 one of their songs may become an overnight hit. If that happened the CC
6705 BY-SA license would preclude them getting rich off the sale of that song.
6706     </p><p>
6707       Hessel’s legal team took this feedback and created a second model and
6708 separate area of the platform called Tribe of Noise Pro. Songs uploaded to
6709 Tribe of Noise Pro aren’t Creative Commons licensed; Tribe of Noise has
6710 instead created a <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">nonexclusive exploitation</span>”</span> contract, similar
6711 to a Creative Commons license but allowing musicians to opt out whenever
6712 they want. When you opt out, Tribe of Noise agrees to take your music off
6713 the Tribe of Noise platform within one to two months. This lets the musician
6714 reuse their song for a better deal.
6715     </p><p>
6716       Tribe of Noise Pro is primarily geared toward media makers who are looking
6717 for music. If they buy a license from this catalog, they don’t have to state
6718 the name of the creator; they just license the song for a specific
6719 amount. This is a big plus for media makers.  And musicians can pull their
6720 repertoire at any time. Hessel sees this as a more direct and clean deal.
6721     </p><p>
6722       Lots of Tribe of Noise musicians upload songs to both Tribe of Noise Pro and
6723 the community area of Tribe of Noises. There aren’t that many artists who
6724 upload only to Tribe of Noise Pro, which has a smaller repertoire of music
6725 than the community area.
6726     </p><p>
6727       Hessel sees the two as complementary. Both are needed for the model to
6728 work. With a whole generation of musicians interested in the sharing
6729 economy, the community area of Tribe of Noise is where they can build trust,
6730 create exposure, and generate money. And after that, musicians may become
6731 more interested in exploring other models like Tribe of Noise Pro.
6732     </p><p>
6733       Every musician who joins Tribe of Noise gets their own home page and free
6734 unlimited Web space to upload as much of their own music as they like. Tribe
6735 of Noise is also a social network; fellow musicians and professionals can
6736 vote for, comment on, and like your music. Community managers interact with
6737 and support members, and music supervisors pick and choose from the uploaded
6738 songs for in-store play or to promote them to media producers. Members
6739 really like having people working for the platform who truly engage with
6740 them.
6741     </p><p>
6742       Another way Tribe of Noise creates community and interest is with contests,
6743 which are organized in partnership with Tribe of Noise clients. The client
6744 specifies what they want, and any member can submit a song. Contests usually
6745 involve prizes, exposure, and money. In addition to building member
6746 engagement, contests help members learn how to work with clients: listening
6747 to them, understanding what they want, and creating a song to meet that
6748 need.
6749     </p><p>
6750       Tribe of Noise now has twenty-seven thousand members from 192 countries, and
6751 many are exploring do-it-yourself models for generating revenue. Some came
6752 from music labels and publishers, having gone through the traditional way of
6753 music licensing and now seeing if this new model makes sense for
6754 them. Others are young musicians, who grew up with a DIY mentality and see
6755 little reason to sign with a third party or hand over some of the
6756 control. Still a small but growing group of Tribe members are pursuing a
6757 hybrid model by licensing some of their songs under CC BY-SA and opting in
6758 others with collecting societies like ASCAP or BMI.
6759     </p><p>
6760       It’s not uncommon for performance-rights organizations, record labels, or
6761 music publishers to sign contracts with musicians based on exclusivity. Such
6762 an arrangement prevents those musicians from uploading their music to Tribe
6763 of Noise. In the United States, you can have a collecting society handle
6764 only some of your tracks, whereas in many countries in Europe, a collecting
6765 society prefers to represent your entire repertoire (although the European
6766 Commission is making some changes). Tribe of Noise deals with this issue all
6767 the time and gives you a warning whenever you upload a song. If collecting
6768 societies are willing to be open and flexible and do the most they can for
6769 their members, then they can consider organizations like Tribe of Noise as a
6770 nice add-on, generating more exposure and revenue for the musicians they
6771 represent. So far, Tribe of Noise has been able to make all this work
6772 without litigation.
6773     </p><p>
6774       For Hessel the key to Tribe of Noise’s success is trust. The fact that
6775 Creative Commons licenses work the same way all over the world and have been
6776 translated into all languages really helps build that trust. Tribe of Noise
6777 believes in creating a model where they work together with musicians. They
6778 can only do that if they have a live and kicking community, with people who
6779 think that the Tribe of Noise team has their best interests in
6780 mind. Creative Commons makes it possible to create a new business model for
6781 music, a model that’s based on trust.
6782     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm2090" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm2090" class="para"><sup class="para">[152] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.instoremusicservice.com" target="_top">http://www.instoremusicservice.com</a></p></div><div id="ftn.idm2099" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm2099" class="para"><sup class="para">[153] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://www.tribeofnoise.com/info_instoremusic.php" target="_top">http://www.tribeofnoise.com/info_instoremusic.php</a></p></div></div></div><div class="chapter"><div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title"><a name="wikimedia-foundation"></a>第 27 章 Wikimedia Foundation</h2></div></div></div><div class="blockquote"><table border="0" class="blockquote" style="width: 100%; cellspacing: 0; cellpadding: 0;" summary="Block quote"><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td width="80%" valign="top"><p>
6783         The Wikimedia Foundation is the nonprofit organization that hosts Wikipedia
6784 and its sister projects. Founded in 2003 in the U.S.
6785       </p><p>
6786           <a class="ulink" href="http://wikimediafoundation.org" target="_top">http://wikimediafoundation.org</a>
6787         </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Revenue model</strong></span>: donations
6788       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interview date</strong></span>: December 18, 2015
6789       </p><p><span class="strong"><strong>Interviewees</strong></span>: Luis Villa, former Chief
6790 Officer of Community Engagement, and Stephen LaPorte, legal counsel
6791       </p></td><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td></tr><tr><td width="10%" valign="top"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right" valign="top">--\begin{flushright}
6792     \textit{
6793         Profile written by Sarah Hinchliff Pearson
6794       }
6795     \end{flushright}</td></tr></table></div><p>
6796       Nearly every person with an online presence knows Wikipedia.
6797     </p><p>
6798       In many ways, it is the preeminent open project: The online encyclopedia is
6799 created entirely by volunteers. Anyone in the world can edit the
6800 articles. All of the content is available for free to anyone online. All of
6801 the content is released under a Creative Commons license that enables people
6802 to reuse and adapt it for any purpose.
6803     </p><p>
6804       As of December 2016, there were more than forty-two million articles in the
6805 295 language editions of the online encyclopedia, according to—what
6806 else?—the Wikipedia article about Wikipedia.
6807     </p><p>
6808       The Wikimedia Foundation is a U.S.-based nonprofit organization that owns
6809 the Wikipedia domain name and hosts the site, along with many other related
6810 sites like Wikidata and Wikimedia Commons. The foundation employs about two
6811 hundred and eighty people, who all work to support the projects it
6812 hosts. But the true heart of Wikipedia and its sister projects is its
6813 community. The numbers of people in the community are variable, but about
6814 seventy-five thousand volunteers edit and improve Wikipedia articles every
6815 month. Volunteers are organized in a variety of ways across the globe,
6816 including formal Wikimedia chapters (mostly national), groups focused on a
6817 particular theme, user groups, and many thousands who are not connected to a
6818 particular organization.
6819     </p><p>
6820       As Wikimedia legal counsel Stephen LaPorte told us, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is a common
6821 saying that Wikipedia works in practice but not in theory.</span>”</span> While it
6822 undoubtedly has its challenges and flaws, Wikipedia and its sister projects
6823 are a striking testament to the power of human collaboration.
6824     </p><p>
6825       Because of its extraordinary breadth and scope, it does feel a bit like a
6826 unicorn. Indeed, there is nothing else like Wikipedia.  Still, much of what
6827 makes the projects successful—community, transparency, a strong mission,
6828 trust—are consistent with what it takes to be successfully Made with
6829 Creative Commons more generally. With Wikipedia, everything just happens at
6830 an unprecedented scale.
6831     </p><p>
6832       The story of Wikipedia has been told many times. For our purposes, it is
6833 enough to know the experiment started in 2001 at a small scale, inspired by
6834 the crazy notion that perhaps a truly open, collaborative project could
6835 create something meaningful. At this point, Wikipedia is so ubiquitous and
6836 ingrained in our digital lives that the fact of its existence seems less
6837 remarkable. But outside of software, Wikipedia is perhaps the single most
6838 stunning example of successful community cocreation. Every day, seven
6839 thousand new articles are created on Wikipedia, and nearly fifteen thousand
6840 edits are made every hour.
6841     </p><p>
6842       The nature of the content the community creates is ideal for asynchronous
6843 cocreation. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">An encyclopedia is something where incremental community
6844 improvement really works,</span>”</span> Luis Villa, former Chief Officer of
6845 Community Engagement, told us. The rules and processes that govern
6846 cocreation on Wikipedia and its sister projects are all community-driven and
6847 vary by language edition. There are entire books written on the intricacies
6848 of their systems, but generally speaking, there are very few exceptions to
6849 the rule that anyone can edit any article, even without an account on their
6850 system. The extensive peer-review process includes elaborate systems to
6851 resolve disputes, methods for managing particularly controversial subject
6852 areas, talk pages explaining decisions, and much, much more. The Wikimedia
6853 Foundation’s decision to leave governance of the projects to the community
6854 is very deliberate. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">We look at the things that the community can do
6855 well, and we want to let them do those things,</span>”</span> Stephen told
6856 us. Instead, the foundation focuses its time and resources on what the
6857 community cannot do as effectively, like the software engineering that
6858 supports the technical infrastructure of the sites. In 2015-16, about half
6859 of the foundation’s budget went to direct support for the Wikimedia sites.
6860     </p><p>
6861       Some of that is directed at servers and general IT support, but the
6862 foundation also invests a significant amount on architecture designed to
6863 help the site function as effectively as possible.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">There is a
6864 constantly evolving system to keep the balance in place to avoid Wikipedia
6865 becoming the world’s biggest graffiti wall,</span>”</span> Luis said. Depending on
6866 how you measure it, somewhere between 90 to 98 percent of edits to Wikipedia
6867 are positive. Some portion of that success is attributable to the tools
6868 Wikimedia has in place to try to incentivize good actors.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The secret
6869 to having any healthy community is bringing back the right people,</span>”</span>
6870 Luis said. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Vandals tend to get bored and go away. That is partially
6871 our model working, and partially just human nature.</span>”</span> Most of the
6872 time, people want to do the right thing.
6873     </p><p>
6874       Wikipedia not only relies on good behavior within its community and on its
6875 sites, but also by everyone else once the content leaves Wikipedia. All of
6876 the text of Wikipedia is available under an Attribution-ShareAlike license
6877 (CC BY-SA), which means it can be used for any purpose and modified so long
6878 as credit is given and anything new is shared back with the public under the
6879 same license. In theory, that means anyone can copy the content and start a
6880 new Wikipedia. But as Stephen explained, <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Being open has only made
6881 Wikipedia bigger and stronger. The desire to protect is not always what is
6882 best for everyone.</span>”</span>
6883     </p><p>
6884       Of course, the primary reason no one has successfully co-opted Wikipedia is
6885 that copycat efforts do not have the Wikipedia community to sustain what
6886 they do. Wikipedia is not simply a source of up-to-the-minute content on
6887 every given topic—it is also a global patchwork of humans working together
6888 in a million different ways, in a million different capacities, for a
6889 million different reasons. While many have tried to guess what makes
6890 Wikipedia work as well it does, the fact is there is no single
6891 explanation. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">In a movement as large as ours, there is an incredible
6892 diversity of motivations,</span>”</span> Stephen said. For example, there is one
6893 editor of the English Wikipedia edition who has corrected a single
6894 grammatical error in articles more than forty-eight thousand
6895 times.<a href="#ftn.idm2145" class="footnote" name="idm2145"><sup class="footnote">[154]</sup></a> Only a fraction of Wikipedia
6896 users are also editors.  But editing is not the only way to contribute to
6897 Wikipedia.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Some donate text, some donate images, some donate
6898 financially,</span>”</span> Stephen told us. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">They are all
6899 contributors.</span>”</span>
6900     </p><p>
6901       But the vast majority of us who use Wikipedia are not contributors; we are
6902 passive readers. The Wikimedia Foundation survives primarily on individual
6903 donations, with about $15 as the average. Because Wikipedia is one of the
6904 ten most popular websites in terms of total page views, donations from a
6905 small portion of that audience can translate into a lot of money. In the
6906 2015-16 fiscal year, they received more than $77 million from more than five
6907 million donors.
6908     </p><p>
6909       The foundation has a fund-raising team that works year-round to raise money,
6910 but the bulk of their revenue comes in during the December campaign in
6911 Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United
6912 States. They engage in extensive user testing and research to maximize the
6913 reach of their fund-raising campaigns. Their basic fund-raising message is
6914 simple: We provide our readers and the world immense value, so give
6915 back. Every little bit helps. With enough eyeballs, they are right.
6916     </p><p>
6917       The vision of the Wikimedia Foundation is a world in which every single
6918 human being can freely share in the sum of all knowledge.  They work to
6919 realize this vision by empowering people around the globe to create
6920 educational content made freely available under an open license or in the
6921 public domain. Stephen and Luis said the mission, which is rooted in the
6922 same philosophy behind Creative Commons, drives everything the foundation
6923 does.
6924     </p><p>
6925       The philosophy behind the endeavor also enables the foundation to be
6926 financially sustainable. It instills trust in their readership, which is
6927 critical for a revenue strategy that relies on reader donations. It also
6928 instills trust in their community.
6929     </p><p>
6930       Any given edit on Wikipedia could be motivated by nearly an infinite number
6931 of reasons. But the social mission of the project is what binds the global
6932 community together. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Wikipedia is an example of how a mission can
6933 motivate an entire movement,</span>”</span> Stephen told us.
6934     </p><p>
6935       Of course, what results from that movement is one of the Internet’s great
6936 public resources. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Internet has a lot of businesses and stores,
6937 but it is missing the digital equivalent of parks and open public
6938 spaces,</span>”</span> Stephen said.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Wikipedia has found a way to be that
6939 open public space.</span>”</span>
6940     </p><div class="footnotes"><br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0"><div id="ftn.idm2145" class="footnote"><p><a href="#idm2145" class="para"><sup class="para">[154] </sup></a><a class="ulink" href="http://gimletmedia.com/episode/14-the-art-of-making-and-fixing-mistakes/" target="_top">http://gimletmedia.com/episode/14-the-art-of-making-and-fixing-mistakes/</a></p></div></div></div></div>\chapter*{<title>Bibliography</title>}\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{<title>Bibliography</title>}<p>
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7005 Madison, and Strandburg, Governing Knowledge Commons.
7006   </p><p>
7007     Creative Commons. 2015 State of the Commons. Mountain View, CA: Creative
7008 Commons, 2015.  <a class="ulink" href="http://stateof.creativecommons.org/2015/" target="_top">http://stateof.creativecommons.org/2015/</a>.
7009   </p><p>
7010     Doctorow, Cory. Information Doesn’t Want to Be Free: Laws for the Internet
7011 Age. San Francisco: McSweeney’s, 2014.
7012   </p><p>
7013     Eckhardt, Giana, and Fleura Bardhi. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Sharing Economy Isn’t about
7014 Sharing at All.</span>”</span> Harvard Business Review, January 28, 2015.  <a class="ulink" href="http://hbr.org/2015/01/the-sharing-economy-isnt-about-sharing-at-all" target="_top">http://hbr.org/2015/01/the-sharing-economy-isnt-about-sharing-at-all</a>.
7015   </p><p>
7016     Elliott, Patricia W., and Daryl H. Hepting, eds. (2015). Free Knowledge:
7017 Confronting the Commodification of Human Discovery.  Regina, SK: University
7018 of Regina Press, 2015.  <a class="ulink" href="http://uofrpress.ca/publications/Free-Knowledge" target="_top">http://uofrpress.ca/publications/Free-Knowledge</a> (licensed under CC
7019 BY-NC-ND).
7020   </p><p>
7021     Eyal, Nir. Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products. With Ryan
7022 Hoover. New York: Portfolio, 2014.
7023   </p><p>
7024     Farley, Joshua, and Ida Kubiszewski. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Economics of Information in
7025 a Post-Carbon Economy.</span>”</span> Chap. 11 in Elliott and Hepting, Free
7026 Knowledge.
7027   </p><p>
7028     Foster, William Landes, Peter Kim, and Barbara Christiansen.  <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Ten
7029 Nonprofit Funding Models.</span>”</span> Stanford Social Innovation Review, Spring
7030 2009.  <a class="ulink" href="http://ssir.org/articles/entry/ten_nonprofit_funding_models" target="_top">http://ssir.org/articles/entry/ten_nonprofit_funding_models</a>.
7031   </p><p>
7032     Frischmann, Brett M. Infrastructure: The Social Value of Shared
7033 Resources. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
7034   </p><p>
7035     Frischmann, Brett M., Michael J. Madison, and Katherine J.  Strandburg,
7036 eds. Governing Knowledge Commons. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
7037   </p><p>
7038     Frischmann, Brett M., Michael J. Madison, and Katherine J.
7039 Strandburg. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Governing Knowledge Commons.</span>”</span> Chap. 1 in
7040 Frischmann, Madison, and Strandburg, Governing Knowledge Commons.
7041   </p><p>
7042     Gansky, Lisa. The Mesh: Why the Future of Business Is Sharing.  Reprint with
7043 new epilogue. New York: Portfolio, 2012.
7044   </p><p>
7045     Grant, Adam. Give and Take: Why Helping Others Drives Our Success.  New
7046 York: Viking, 2013.
7047   </p><p>
7048     Haiven, Max. Crises of Imagination, Crises of Power: Capitalism, Creativity
7049 and the Commons. New York: Zed Books, 2014.
7050   </p><p>
7051     Harris, Malcom, ed. Share or Die: Voices of the Get Lost Generation in the
7052 Age of Crisis. With Neal Gorenflo. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society, 2012.
7053   </p><p>
7054     Hermida, Alfred. Tell Everyone: Why We Share and Why It Matters.  Toronto:
7055 Doubleday Canada, 2014.
7056   </p><p>
7057     Hyde, Lewis. Common as Air: Revolution, Art, and Ownership. New York:
7058 Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010.
7059   </p><p>
7060     ———. The Gift: Creativity and the Artist in the Modern World. 2nd Vintage
7061 Books edition. New York: Vintage Books, 2007.
7062   </p><p>
7063     Kelley, Tom, and David Kelley. Creative Confidence: Unleashing the Potential
7064 within Us All. New York: Crown, 2013.
7065   </p><p>
7066     Kelly, Marjorie. Owning Our Future: The Emerging Ownership Revolution;
7067 Journeys to a Generative Economy. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2012.
7068   </p><p>
7069     Kleon, Austin. Show Your Work: 10 Ways to Share Your Creativity and Get
7070 Discovered. New York: Workman, 2014.
7071   </p><p>
7072     ———. Steal Like an Artist: 10 Things Nobody Told You about Being
7073 Creative. New York: Workman, 2012.
7074   </p><p>
7075     Kramer, Bryan. Shareology: How Sharing Is Powering the Human Economy. New
7076 York: Morgan James, 2016.
7077   </p><p>
7078     Lee, David. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Inside Medium: An Attempt to Bring Civility to the
7079 Internet.</span>”</span> BBC News, March 3, 2016.  <a class="ulink" href="http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35709680" target="_top">http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35709680</a>
7080   </p><p>
7081     Lessig, Lawrence. Remix: Making Art and Commerce Thrive in the Hybrid
7082 Economy. New York: Penguin Press, 2008.
7083   </p><p>
7084     Menzies, Heather. Reclaiming the Commons for the Common Good: A Memoir and
7085 Manifesto. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society, 2014.
7086   </p><p>
7087     Mason, Paul. Postcapitalism: A Guide to Our Future. New York: Farrar, Straus
7088 and Giroux, 2015.
7089   </p><p>
7090     New York Times Customer Insight Group. The Psychology of Sharing: Why Do
7091 People Share Online? New York: New York Times Customer Insight Group, 2011.
7092 <a class="ulink" href="http://www.iab.net/media/file/POSWhitePaper.pdf" target="_top">http://www.iab.net/media/file/POSWhitePaper.pdf</a>.
7093   </p><p>
7094     Osterwalder, Alex, and Yves Pigneur. Business Model Generation.  Hoboken,
7095 NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2010. A preview of the book is available at <a class="ulink" href="http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation" target="_top">http://strategyzer.com/books/business-model-generation</a>.
7096   </p><p>
7097     Osterwalder, Alex, Yves Pigneur, Greg Bernarda, and Adam Smith.  Value
7098 Proposition Design. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2014. A preview of the
7099 book is available at <a class="ulink" href="http://strategyzer.com/books/value-proposition-design" target="_top">http://strategyzer.com/books/value-proposition-design</a>.
7100   </p><p>
7101     Palmer, Amanda. The Art of Asking: Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Let
7102 People Help. New York: Grand Central, 2014.
7103   </p><p>
7104     Pekel, Joris. Democratising the Rijksmuseum: Why Did the Rijksmuseum Make
7105 Available Their Highest Quality Material without Restrictions, and What Are
7106 the Results? The Hague, Netherlands: Europeana Foundation, 2014.  <a class="ulink" href="http://pro.europeana.eu/publication/democratising-the-rijksmuseum" target="_top">http://pro.europeana.eu/publication/democratising-the-rijksmuseum</a>
7107 (licensed under CC BY-SA).
7108   </p><p>
7109     Ramos, José Maria, ed. The City as Commons: A Policy Reader.  Melbourne,
7110 Australia: Commons Transition Coalition, 2016.  <a class="ulink" href="http://www.academia.edu/27143172/The_City_as_Commons_a_Policy_Reader" target="_top">http://www.academia.edu/27143172/The_City_as_Commons_a_Policy_Reader</a>
7111 (licensed under CC BY-NC-ND).
7112   </p><p>
7113     Raymond, Eric S. The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open
7114 Source by an Accidental Revolutionary. Rev. ed. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly
7115 Media, 2001. See esp. <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">The Magic Cauldron.</span>”</span> <a class="ulink" href="http://www.catb.org/esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/" target="_top">http://www.catb.org/esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/</a>.
7116   </p><p>
7117     Ries, Eric. The Lean Startup: How Today’s Entrepreneurs Use Continuous
7118 Innovation to Create Radically Successful Businesses. New York: Crown
7119 Business, 2011.
7120   </p><p>
7121     Rifkin, Jeremy. The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the
7122 Collaborative Commons, and the Eclipse of Capitalism.  New York: Palgrave
7123 Macmillan, 2014.
7124   </p><p>
7125     Rowe, Jonathan. Our Common Wealth. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2013.
7126   </p><p>
7127     Rushkoff, Douglas. Throwing Rocks at the Google Bus: How Growth Became the
7128 Enemy of Prosperity. New York: Portfolio, 2016.
7129   </p><p>
7130     Sandel, Michael J. What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets. New
7131 York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012.
7132   </p><p>
7133     Shirky, Clay. Cognitive Surplus: How Technology Makes Consumers into
7134 Collaborators. London, England: Penguin Books, 2010.
7135   </p><p>
7136     Slee, Tom. What’s Yours Is Mine: Against the Sharing Economy. New York: OR
7137 Books, 2015.
7138   </p><p>
7139     Stephany, Alex. The Business of Sharing: Making in the New Sharing
7140 Economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
7141   </p><p>
7142     Stepper, John. Working Out Loud: For a Better Career and Life. New York:
7143 Ikigai Press, 2015.
7144   </p><p>
7145     Sull, Donald, and Kathleen M. Eisenhardt. Simple Rules: How to Thrive in a
7146 Complex World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2015.
7147   </p><p>
7148     Sundararajan, Arun. The Sharing Economy: The End of Employment and the Rise
7149 of Crowd-Based Capitalism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016.
7150   </p><p>
7151     Surowiecki, James. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Anchor Books, 2005.
7152   </p><p>
7153     Tapscott, Don, and Alex Tapscott. Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology
7154 Behind Bitcoin Is Changing Money, Business, and the World. Toronto:
7155 Portfolio, 2016.
7156   </p><p>
7157     Tharp, Twyla. The Creative Habit: Learn It and Use It for Life. With Mark
7158 Reiter. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006.
7159   </p><p>
7160     Tkacz, Nathaniel. Wikipedia and the Politics of Openness. Chicago:
7161 University of Chicago Press, 2015.
7162   </p><p>
7163     Van Abel, Bass, Lucas Evers, Roel Klaassen, and Peter Troxler, eds.  Open
7164 Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive. Amsterdam: BIS Publishers,
7165 with Creative Commons Netherlands; Premsela, the Netherlands Institute for
7166 Design and Fashion; and the Waag Society, 2011. <a class="ulink" href="http://opendesignnow.org" target="_top">http://opendesignnow.org</a> (licensed under CC BY-NC-SA).
7167   </p><p>
7168     Van den Hoff, Ronald. Mastering the Global Transition on Our Way to Society
7169 3.0. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Society 3.0 Foundation, 2014.  <a class="ulink" href="http://society30.com/get-the-book/" target="_top">http://society30.com/get-the-book/</a> (licensed under CC BY-NC-ND).
7170   </p><p>
7171     Von Hippel, Eric. Democratizing Innovation. London: MIT Press, 2005.  <a class="ulink" href="http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/democ1.htm" target="_top">http://web.mit.edu/evhippel/www/democ1.htm</a> (licensed under CC
7172 BY-NC-ND).
7173   </p><p>
7174     Whitehurst, Jim. The Open Organization: Igniting Passion and
7175 Performance. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2015.
7176   </p>\chapter*{<title>Acknowledgments</title>}\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{<title>Acknowledgments</title>}<p>
7177     We extend special thanks to Creative Commons CEO Ryan Merkley, the Creative
7178 Commons Board, and all of our Creative Commons colleagues for
7179 enthusiastically supporting our work. Special gratitude to the William and
7180 Flora Hewlett Foundation for the initial seed funding that got us started on
7181 this project.
7182   </p><p>
7183     Huge appreciation to all the Made with Creative Commons interviewees for
7184 sharing their stories with us. You make the commons come alive.  Thanks for
7185 the inspiration.
7186   </p><p>
7187     We interviewed more than the twenty-four organizations profiled in this
7188 book. We extend special thanks to Gooru, OERu, Sage Bionetworks, and Medium
7189 for sharing their stories with us. While not featured as case studies in
7190 this book, you all are equally interesting, and we encourage our readers to
7191 visit your sites and explore your work.
7192   </p><p>
7193     This book was made possible by the generous support of 1,687 Kickstarter
7194 backers listed below. We especially acknowledge our many Kickstarter
7195 co-editors who read early drafts of our work and provided invaluable
7196 feedback. Heartfelt thanks to all of you.
7197   </p><p>
7198     Co-editor Kickstarter backers (alphabetically by first name): Abraham
7199 Taherivand, Alan Graham, Alfredo Louro, Anatoly Volynets, Aurora Thornton,
7200 Austin Tolentino, Ben Sheridan, Benedikt Foit, Benjamin Costantini, Bernd
7201 Nurnberger, Bernhard Seefeld, Bethanye Blount, Bradford Benn, Bryan Mock,
7202 Carmen Garcia Wiedenhoeft, Carolyn Hinchliff, Casey Milford, Cat Cooper,
7203 Chip McIntosh, Chris Thorne, Chris Weber, Chutika Udomsinn, Claire Wardle,
7204 Claudia Cristiani, Cody Allard, Colleen Cressman, Craig Thomler, Creative
7205 Commons Uruguay, Curt McNamara, Dan Parson, Daniel Dominguez, Daniel Morado,
7206 Darius Irvin, Dave Taillefer, David Lewis, David Mikula, David Varnes, David
7207 Wiley, Deborah Nas, Diderik van Wingerden, Dirk Kiefer, Dom Lane, Domi
7208 Enders, Douglas Van Houweling, Dylan Field, Einar Joergensen, Elad Wieder,
7209 Elie Calhoun, Erika Reid, Evtim Papushev, Fauxton Software, Felix
7210 Maximiliano Obes, Ferdies Food Lab, Gatien de Broucker, Gaurav Kapil, Gavin
7211 Romig-Koch, George Baier IV, George De Bruin, Gianpaolo Rando, Glenn Otis
7212 Brown, Govindarajan Umakanthan, Graham Bird, Graham Freeman, Hamish MacEwan,
7213 Harry Kaczka, Humble Daisy, Ian Capstick, Iris Brest, James Cloos, Jamie
7214 Stevens, Jamil Khatib, Jane Finette, Jason Blasso, Jason E. Barkeloo, Jay M
7215 Williams, Jean-Philippe Turcotte, Jeanette Frey, Jeff De Cagna, Jérôme
7216 Mizeret, Jessica Dickinson Goodman, Jessy Kate Schingler, Jim O’Flaherty,
7217 Jim Pellegrini, Jiří Marek, Jo Allum, Joachim von Goetz, Johan Adda, John
7218 Benfield, John Bevan, Jonas Öberg, Jonathan Lin, JP Rangaswami, Juan Carlos
7219 Belair, Justin Christian, Justin Szlasa, Kate Chapman, Kate Stewart, Kellie
7220 Higginbottom, Kendra Byrne, Kevin Coates, Kristina Popova, Kristoffer Steen,
7221 Kyle Simpson, Laurie Racine, Leonardo Bueno Postacchini, Leticia Britos
7222 Cavagnaro, Livia Leskovec, Louis-David Benyayer, Maik Schmalstich, Mairi
7223 Thomson, Marcia Hofmann, Maria Liberman, Marino Hernandez, Mario R. Hemsley,
7224 MD, Mark Cohen, Mark Mullen, Mary Ellen Davis, Mathias Bavay, Matt Black,
7225 Matt Hall, Max van Balgooy, Médéric Droz-dit-Busset, Melissa Aho, Menachem
7226 Goldstein, Michael Harries, Michael Lewis, Michael Weiss, Miha Batic, Mike
7227 Stop Continues, Mike Stringer, Mustafa K Calik, MD, Neal Stimler, Niall
7228 McDonagh, Niall Twohig, Nicholas Norfolk, Nick Coghlan, Nicole Hickman,
7229 Nikki Thompson, Norrie Mailer, Omar Kaminski, OpenBuilds, Papp István Péter,
7230 Pat Sticks, Patricia Brennan, Paul and Iris Brest, Paul Elosegui, Penny
7231 Pearson, Peter Mengelers, Playground Inc., Pomax, Rafaela Kunz, Rajiv
7232 Jhangiani, Rayna Stamboliyska, Rob Berkley, Rob Bertholf, Robert Jones,
7233 Robert Thompson, Ronald van den Hoff, Rusi Popov, Ryan Merkley, S Searle,
7234 Salomon Riedo, Samuel A. Rebelsky, Samuel Tait, Sarah McGovern, Scott
7235 Gillespie, Seb Schmoller, Sharon Clapp, Sheona Thomson, Siena Oristaglio,
7236 Simon Law, Solomon Simon, Stefano Guidotti, Subhendu Ghosh, Susan Chun,
7237 Suzie Wiley, Sylvain Carle, Theresa Bernardo, Thomas Hartman, Thomas Kent,
7238 Timothée Planté, Timothy Hinchliff, Traci Long DeForge, Trevor Hogue,
7239 Tumuult, Vickie Goode, Vikas Shah, Virginia Kopelman, Wayne Mackintosh,
7240 William Peter Nash, Winie Evers, Wolfgang Renninger, Xavier Antoviaque,
7241 Yancey Strickler
7242   </p><p>
7243     All other Kickstarter backers (alphabetically by first name): A.  Lee, Aaron
7244 C. Rathbun, Aaron Stubbs, Aaron Suggs, Abdul Razak Manaf, Abraham
7245 Taherivand, Adam Croom, Adam Finer, Adam Hansen, Adam Morris, Adam Procter,
7246 Adam Quirk, Adam Rory Porter, Adam Simmons, Adam Tinworth, Adam Zimmerman,
7247 Adrian Ho, Adrian Smith, Adriane Ruzak, Adriano Loconte, Al Sweigart, Alain
7248 Imbaud, Alan Graham, Alan M. Ford, Alan Swithenbank, Alan Vonlanthen, Albert
7249 O’Connor, Alec Foster, Alejandro Suarez Cebrian, Aleks Degtyarev, Alex
7250 Blood, Alex C. Ion, Alex Ross Shaw, Alexander Bartl, Alexander Brown,
7251 Alexander Brunner, Alexander Eliesen, Alexander Hawson, Alexander Klar,
7252 Alexander Neumann, Alexander Plaum, Alexander Wendland, Alexandre
7253 Rafalovitch, Alexey Volkow, Alexi Wheeler, Alexis Sevault, Alfredo Louro,
7254 Ali Sternburg, Alicia Gibb &amp; Lunchbox Electronics, Alison Link, Alison
7255 Pentecost, Alistair Boettiger, Alistair Walder, Alix Bernier, Allan
7256 Callaghan, Allen Riddell, Allison Breland Crotwell, Allison Jane Smith,
7257 Álvaro Justen, Amanda Palmer, Amanda Wetherhold, Amit Bagree, Amit Tikare,
7258 Amos Blanton, Amy Sept, Anatoly Volynets, Anders Ericsson, Andi Popp, André
7259 Bose Do Amaral, Andre Dickson, André Koot, André Ricardo, Andre van Rooyen,
7260 Andre Wallace, Andrea Bagnacani, Andrea Pepe, Andrea Pigato, Andreas
7261 Jagelund, Andres Gomez Casanova, Andrew A. Farke, Andrew Berhow, Andrew
7262 Hearse, Andrew Matangi, Andrew R McHugh, Andrew Tam, Andrew Turvey, Andrew
7263 Walsh, Andrew Wilson, Andrey Novoseltsev, Andy McGhee, Andy Reeve, Andy
7264 Woods, Angela Brett, Angeliki Kapoglou, Angus Keenan, Anne-Marie Scott,
7265 Antero Garcia, Antoine Authier, Antoine Michard, Anton Kurkin, Anton
7266 Porsche, Antònia Folguera, António Ornelas, Antonis Triantafyllakis, aois21
7267 publishing, April Johnson, Aria F.  Chernik, Ariane Allan, Ariel Katz,
7268 Arithmomaniac, Arnaud Tessier, Arnim Sommer, Ashima Bawa, Ashley Elsdon,
7269 Athanassios Diacakis, Aurora Thornton, Aurore Chavet Henry, Austin
7270 Hartzheim, Austin Tolentino, Avner Shanan, Axel Pettersson, Axel
7271 Stieglbauer, Ay Okpokam, Barb Bartkowiak, Barbara Lindsey, Barry Dayton,
7272 Bastian Hougaard, Ben Chad, Ben Doherty, Ben Hansen, Ben Nuttall, Ben
7273 Rosenthal, Ben Sheridan, Benedikt Foit, Benita Tsao, Benjamin Costantini,
7274 Benjamin Daemon, Benjamin Keele, Benjamin Pflanz, Berglind Ósk Bergsdóttir,
7275 Bernardo Miguel Antunes, Bernd Nurnberger, Bernhard Seefeld, Beth Gis, Beth
7276 Tillinghast, Bethanye Blount, Bill Bonwitt, Bill Browne, Bill Keaggy, Bill
7277 Maiden, Bill Rafferty, Bill Scanlon, Bill Shields, Bill Slankard, BJ Becker,
7278 Bjorn Freeman-Benson, Bjørn Otto Wallevik, BK Bitner, Bo Ilsøe Hansen, Bo
7279 Sprotte Kofod, Bob Doran, Bob Recny, Bob Stuart, Bonnie Chiu, Boris Mindzak,
7280 Boriss Lariushin, Borjan Tchakaloff, Brad Kik, Braden Hassett, Bradford
7281 Benn, Bradley Keyes, Bradley L’Herrou, Brady Forrest, Brandon McGaha, Branka
7282 Tokic, Brant Anderson, Brenda Sullivan, Brendan O’Brien, Brendan Schlagel,
7283 Brett Abbott, Brett Gaylor, Brian Dysart, Brian Lampl, Brian Lipscomb, Brian
7284 S. Weis, Brian Schrader, Brian Walsh, Brian Walsh, Brooke Dukes, Brooke
7285 Schreier Ganz, Bruce Lerner, Bruce Wilson, Bruno Boutot, Bruno Girin, Bryan
7286 Mock, Bryant Durrell, Bryce Barbato, Buzz Technology Limited, Byung-Geun
7287 Jeon, C. Glen Williams, C. L. Couch, Cable Green, Callum Gare, Cameron
7288 Callahan, Cameron Colby Thomson, Cameron Mulder, Camille Bissuel / Nylnook,
7289 Candace Robertson, Carl Morris, Carl Perry, Carl Rigney, Carles Mateu,
7290 Carlos Correa Loyola, Carlos Solis, Carmen Garcia Wiedenhoeft, Carol Long,
7291 Carol marquardsen, Caroline Calomme, Caroline Mailloux, Carolyn Hinchliff,
7292 Carolyn Rude, Carrie Cousins, Carrie Watkins, Casey Hunt, Casey Milford,
7293 Casey Powell Shorthouse, Cat Cooper, Cecilie Maria, Cedric Howe, Cefn Hoile,
7294 @ShrimpingIt, Celia Muller, Ces Keller, Chad Anderson, Charles Butler,
7295 Charles Carstensen, Charles Chi Thoi Le, Charles Kobbe, Charles S. Tritt,
7296 Charles Stanhope, Charlotte Ong-Wisener, Chealsye Bowley, Chelle Destefano,
7297 Chenpang Chou, Cheryl Corte, Cheryl Todd, Chip Dickerson, Chip McIntosh,
7298 Chris Bannister, Chris Betcher, Chris Coleman, Chris Conway, Chris Foote
7299 (Spike), Chris Hurst, Chris Mitchell, Chris Muscat Azzopardi, Chris
7300 Niewiarowski, Chris Opperwall, Chris Stieha, Chris Thorne, Chris Weber,
7301 Chris Woolfrey, Chris Zabriskie, Christi Reid, Christian Holzberger,
7302 Christian Schubert, Christian Sheehy, Christian Thibault, Christian Villum,
7303 Christian Wachter, Christina Bennett, Christine Henry, Christine Rico,
7304 Christopher Burrows, Christopher Chan, Christopher Clay, Christopher Harris,
7305 Christopher Opiah, Christopher Swenson, Christos Keramitsis, Chuck Roslof,
7306 Chutika Udomsinn, Claire Wardle, Clare Forrest, Claudia Cristiani, Claudio
7307 Gallo, Claudio Ruiz, Clayton Dewey, Clement Delort, Cliff Church, Clint
7308 Lalonde, Clint O’Connor, Cody Allard, Cody Taylor, Colin Ayer, Colin
7309 Campbell, Colin Dean, Colin Mutchler, Colleen Cressman, Comfy Nomad, Connie
7310 Roberts, Connor Bär, Connor Merkley, Constantin Graf, Corbett Messa, Cory
7311 Chapman, Cosmic Wombat Games, Craig Engler, Craig Heath, Craig Maloney,
7312 Craig Thomler, Creative Commons Uruguay, Crina Kienle, Cristiano Gozzini,
7313 Curt McNamara, D C Petty, D. Moonfire, D. Rohhyn, D. Schulz, Dacian Herbei,
7314 Dagmar M. Meyer, Dan Mcalister, Dan Mohr, Dan Parson, Dana Freeman, Dana
7315 Ospina, Dani Leviss, Daniel Bustamante, Daniel Demmel, Daniel Dominguez,
7316 Daniel Dultz, Daniel Gallant, Daniel Kossmann, Daniel Kruse, Daniel Morado,
7317 Daniel Morgan, Daniel Pimley, Daniel Sabo, Daniel Sobey, Daniel Stein,
7318 Daniel Wildt, Daniele Prati, Danielle Moss, Danny Mendoza, Dario
7319 Taraborelli, Darius Irvin, Darius Whelan, Darla Anderson, Dasha Brezinova,
7320 Dave Ainscough, Dave Bull, Dave Crosby, Dave Eagle, Dave Moskovitz, Dave
7321 Neeteson, Dave Taillefer, Dave Witzel, David Bailey, David Cheung, David
7322 Eriksson, David Gallagher, David H. Bronke, David Hartley, David Hellam,
7323 David Hood, David Hunter, David jlaietta, David Lewis, David Mason, David
7324 Mcconville, David Mikula, David Nelson, David Orban, David Parry, David
7325 Spira, David T.  Kindler, David Varnes, David Wiley, David Wormley, Deborah
7326 Nas, Denis Jean, dennis straub, Dennis Whittle, Denver Gingerich, Derek
7327 Slater, Devon Cooke, Diana Pasek-Atkinson, Diane Johnston Graves, Diane
7328 K. Kovacs, Diane Trout, Diderik van Wingerden, Diego Cuevas, Diego De La
7329 Cruz, Dimitrie Grigorescu, Dina Marie Rodriguez, Dinah Fabela, Dirk Haun,
7330 Dirk Kiefer, Dirk Loop, DJ Fusion - FuseBox Radio Broadcast, Dom jurkewitz,
7331 Dom Lane, Domi Enders, Domingo Gallardo, Dominic de Haas, Dominique
7332 Karadjian, Dongpo Deng, Donnovan Knight, Door de Flines, Doug Fitzpatrick,
7333 Doug Hoover, Douglas Craver, Douglas Van Camp, Douglas Van Houweling,
7334 Dr. Braddlee, Drew Spencer, Duncan Sample, Durand D’souza, Dylan Field, E C
7335 Humphries, Eamon Caddigan, Earleen Smith, Eden Sarid, Eden Spodek, Eduardo
7336 Belinchon, Eduardo Castro, Edwin Vandam, Einar Joergensen, Ejnar Brendsdal,
7337 Elad Wieder, Elar Haljas, Elena Valhalla, Eli Doran, Elias Bouchi, Elie
7338 Calhoun, Elizabeth Holloway, Ellen Buecher, Ellen Kaye- Cheveldayoff, Elli
7339 Verhulst, Elroy Fernandes, Emery Hurst Mikel, Emily Catedral, Enrique
7340 Mandujano R., Eric Astor, Eric Axelrod, Eric Celeste, Eric Finkenbiner, Eric
7341 Hellman, Eric Steuer, Erica Fletcher, Erik Hedman, Erik Lindholm Bundgaard,
7342 Erika Reid, Erin Hawley, Erin McKean of Wordnik, Ernest Risner, Erwan
7343 Bousse, Erwin Bell, Ethan Celery, Étienne Gilli, Eugeen Sablin, Evan
7344 Tangman, Evonne Okafor, Evtim Papushev, Fabien Cambi, Fabio Natali, Fauxton
7345 Software, Felix Deierlein, Felix Gebauer, Felix Maximiliano Obes, Felix
7346 Schmidt, Felix Zephyr Hsiao, Ferdies Food Lab, Fernand Deschambault, Filipe
7347 Rodrigues, Filippo Toso, Fiona MacAlister, fiona.mac.uk, Floor Scheffer,
7348 Florent Darrault, Florian Hähnel, Florian Schneider, Floyd Wilde, Foxtrot
7349 Games, Francis Clarke, Francisco Rivas-Portillo, Francois Dechery, Francois
7350 Grey, François Gros, François Pelletier, Fred Benenson, Frédéric Abella,
7351 Frédéric Schütz, Fredrik Ekelund, Fumi Yamazaki, Gabor Sooki-Toth, Gabriel
7352 Staples, Gabriel Véjar Valenzuela, Gal Buki, Gareth Jordan, Garrett Heath,
7353 Gary Anson, Gary Forster, Gatien de Broucker, Gaurav Kapil, Gauthier de
7354 Valensart, Gavin Gray, Gavin Romig-Koch, Geoff Wood, Geoffrey Lehr, George
7355 Baier IV, George De Bruin, George Lawie, George Strakhov, Gerard Gorman,
7356 Geronimo de la Lama, Gianpaolo Rando, Gil Stendig, Gino Cingolani Trucco,
7357 Giovanna Sala, Glen Moffat, Glenn D. Jones, Glenn Otis Brown, Global Lives
7358 Project, Gorm Lai, Govindarajan Umakanthan, Graham Bird, Graham Freeman,
7359 Graham Heath, Graham Jones, Graham Smith-Gordon, Graham Vowles, Greg
7360 Brodsky, Greg Malone, Grégoire Detrez, Gregory Chevalley, Gregory Flynn,
7361 Grit Matthias, Gui Louback, Guillaume Rischard, Gustavo Vaz de Carvalho
7362 Gonçalves, Gustin Johnson, Gwen Franck, Gwilym Lucas, Haggen So, Håkon T
7363 Sønderland, Hamid Larbi, Hamish MacEwan, Hannes Leo, Hans Bickhofe, Hans de
7364 Raad, Hans Vd Horst, Harold van Ingen, Harold Watson, Harry Chapman, Harry
7365 Kaczka, Harry Torque, Hayden Glass, Hayley Rosenblum, Heather Leson, Helen
7366 Crisp, Helen Michaud, Helen Qubain, Helle Rekdal Schønemann, Henrique Flach
7367 Latorre Moreno, Henry Finn, Henry Kaiser, Henry Lahore, Henry Steingieser,
7368 Hermann Paar, Hillary Miller, Hironori Kuriaki, Holly Dykes, Holly Lyne,
7369 Hubert Gertis, Hugh Geenen, Humble Daisy, Hüppe Keith, Iain Davidson, Ian
7370 Capstick, Ian Johnson, Ian Upton, Icaro Ferracini, Igor Lesko, Imran Haider,
7371 Inma de la Torre, Iris Brest, Irwin Madriaga, Isaac Sandaljian, Isaiah
7372 Tanenbaum, Ivan F. Villanueva B., J P Cleverdon, Jaakko Tammela Jr, Jacek
7373 Darken Gołębiowski, Jack Hart, Jacky Hood, Jacob Dante Leffler, Jaime Perla,
7374 Jaime Woo, Jake Campbell, Jake Loeterman, Jakes Rawlinson, James Allenspach,
7375 James Chesky, James Cloos, James Docherty, James Ellars, James K Wood, James
7376 Tyler, Jamie Finlay, Jamie Stevens, Jamil Khatib, Jan E Ellison, Jan Gondol,
7377 Jan Sepp, Jan Zuppinger, Jane Finette, jane Lofton, Jane Mason, Jane Park,
7378 Janos Kovacs, Jasmina Bricic, Jason Blasso, Jason Chu, Jason Cole, Jason
7379 E. Barkeloo, Jason Hibbets, Jason Owen, Jason Sigal, Jay M Williams, Jazzy
7380 Bear Brown, JC Lara, Jean-Baptiste Carré, Jean-Philippe Dufraigne,
7381 Jean-Philippe Turcotte, Jean-Yves Hemlin, Jeanette Frey, Jeff Atwood, Jeff
7382 De Cagna, Jeff Donoghue, Jeff Edwards, Jeff Hilnbrand, Jeff Lowe, Jeff
7383 Rasalla, Jeff Ski Kinsey, Jeff Smith, Jeffrey L Tucker, Jeffrey Meyer, Jen
7384 Garcia, Jens Erat, Jeppe Bager Skjerning, Jeremy Dudet, Jeremy Russell,
7385 Jeremy Sabo, Jeremy Zauder, Jerko Grubisic, Jerome Glacken, Jérôme Mizeret,
7386 Jessica Dickinson Goodman, Jessica Litman, Jessica Mackay, Jessy Kate
7387 Schingler, Jesús Longás Gamarra, Jesus Marin, Jim Matt, Jim Meloy, Jim
7388 O’Flaherty, Jim Pellegrini, Jim Tittsler, Jimmy Alenius, Jiří Marek, Jo
7389 Allum, Joachim Brandon LeBlanc, Joachim Pileborg, Joachim von Goetz, Joakim
7390 Bang Larsen, Joan Rieu, Joanna Penn, João Almeida, Jochen Muetsch, Jodi
7391 Sandfort, Joe Cardillo, Joe Carpita, Joe Moross, Joerg Fricke, Johan Adda,
7392 Johan Meeusen, Johannes Förstner, Johannes Visintini, John Benfield, John
7393 Bevan, John C Patterson, John Crumrine, John Dimatos, John Feyler, John
7394 Huntsman, John Manoogian III, John Muller, John Ober, John Paul Blodgett,
7395 John Pearce, John Shale, John Sharp, John Simpson, John Sumser, John Weeks,
7396 John Wilbanks, John Worland, Johnny Mayall, Jollean Matsen, Jon Alberdi, Jon
7397 Andersen, Jon Cohrs, Jon Gotlin, Jon Schull, Jon Selmer Friborg, Jon Smith,
7398 Jonas Öberg, Jonas Weitzmann, Jonathan Campbell, Jonathan Deamer, Jonathan
7399 Holst, Jonathan Lin, Jonathan Schmid, Jonathan Yao, Jordon Kalilich, Jörg
7400 Schwarz, Jose Antonio Gallego Vázquez, Joseph Mcarthur, Joseph Noll, Joseph
7401 Sullivan, Joseph Tucker, Josh Bernhard, Josh Tong, Joshua Tobkin, JP
7402 Rangaswami, Juan Carlos Belair, Juan Irming, Juan Pablo Carbajal, Juan Pablo
7403 Marin Diaz, Judith Newman, Judy Tuan, Jukka Hellén, Julia Benson-Slaughter,
7404 Julia Devonshire, Julian Fietkau, Julie Harboe, Julien Brossoit, Julien
7405 Leroy, Juliet Chen, Julio Terra, Julius Mikkelä, Justin Christian, Justin
7406 Grimes, Justin Jones, Justin Szlasa, Justin Walsh, JustinChung.com, K. J.
7407 Przybylski, Kaloyan Raev, Kamil Śliwowski, Kaniska Padhi, Kara Malenfant,
7408 Kara Monroe, Karen Pe, Karl Jahn, Karl Jonsson, Karl Nelson, Kasia
7409 Zygmuntowicz, Kat Lim, Kate Chapman, Kate Stewart, Kathleen Beck, Kathleen
7410 Hanrahan, Kathryn Abuzzahab, Kathryn Deiss, Kathryn Rose, Kathy Payne, Katie
7411 Lynn Daniels, Katie Meek, Katie Teague, Katrina Hennessy, Katriona Main,
7412 Kavan Antani, Keith Adams, Keith Berndtson, MD, Keith Luebke, Kellie
7413 Higginbottom, Ken Friis Larsen, Ken Haase, Ken Torbeck, Kendel Ratley,
7414 Kendra Byrne, Kerry Hicks, Kevin Brown, Kevin Coates, Kevin Flynn, Kevin
7415 Rumon, Kevin Shannon, Kevin Taylor, Kevin Tostado, Kewhyun Kelly-Yuoh, Kiane
7416 l’Azin, Kianosh Pourian, Kiran Kadekoppa, Kit Walsh, Klaus Mickus, Konrad
7417 Rennert, Kris Kasianovitz, Kristian Lundquist, Kristin Buxton, Kristina
7418 Popova, Kristofer Bratt, Kristoffer Steen, Kumar McMillan, Kurt Whittemore,
7419 Kyle Pinches, Kyle Simpson, L Eaton, Lalo Martins, Lane Rasberry, Larry
7420 Garfield, Larry Singer, Lars Josephsen, Lars Klaeboe, Laura Anne Brown,
7421 Laura Billings, Laura Ferejohn, Lauren Pedersen, Laurence Gonsalves, Laurent
7422 Muchacho, Laurie Racine, Laurie Reynolds, Lawrence M. Schoen, Leandro
7423 Pangilinan, Leigh Verlandson, Lenka Gondolova, Leonardo Bueno Postacchini,
7424 leonardo menegola, Lesley Mitchell, Leslie Krumholz, Leticia Britos
7425 Cavagnaro, Levi Bostian, Leyla Acaroglu, Liisa Ummelas, Lilly Kashmir
7426 Marques, Lior Mazliah, Lisa Bjerke, Lisa Brewster, Lisa Canning, Lisa
7427 Cronin, Lisa Di Valentino, Lisandro Gaertner, Livia Leskovec, Liynn
7428 Worldlaw, Liz Berg, Liz White, Logan Cox, Loki Carbis, Lora Lynn, Lorna
7429 Prescott, Lou Yufan, Louie Amphlett, Louis-David Benyayer, Louise Denman,
7430 Luca Corsato, Luca Lesinigo, Luca Palli, Luca Pianigiani, Luca S.G. de
7431 Marinis, Lucas Lopez, Lukas Mathis, Luke Chamberlin, Luke Chesser, Luke
7432 Woodbury, Lulu Tang, Lydia Pintscher, M Alexander Jurkat, Maarten Sander,
7433 Macie J Klosowski, Magnus Adamsson, Magnus Killingberg, Mahmoud Abu-Wardeh,
7434 Maik Schmalstich, Maiken Håvarstein, Maira Sutton, Mairi Thomson, Mandy
7435 Wultsch, Manickkavasakam Rajasekar, Marc Bogonovich, Marc Harpster, Marc
7436 Martí, Marc Olivier Bastien, Marc Stober, Marc-André Martin, Marcel de
7437 Leeuwe, Marcel Hill, Marcia Hofmann, Marcin Olender, Marco Massarotto, Marco
7438 Montanari, Marco Morales, Marcos Medionegro, Marcus Bitzl, Marcus Norrgren,
7439 Margaret Gary, Mari Moreshead, Maria Liberman, Marielle Hsu, Marino
7440 Hernandez, Mario Lurig, Mario R. Hemsley, MD, Marissa Demers, Mark Chandler,
7441 Mark Cohen, Mark De Solla Price, Mark Gabby, Mark Gray, Mark Koudritsky,
7442 Mark Kupfer, Mark Lednor, Mark McGuire, Mark Moleda, Mark Mullen, Mark
7443 Murphy, Mark Perot, Mark Reeder, Mark Spickett, Mark Vincent Adams, Mark
7444 Waks, Mark Zuccarell II, Markus Deimann, Markus Jaritz, Markus Luethi,
7445 Marshal Miller, Marshall Warner, Martijn Arets, Martin Beaudoin, Martin
7446 Decky, Martin DeMello, Martin Humpolec, Martin Mayr, Martin Peck, Martin
7447 Sanchez, Martino Loco, Martti Remmelgas, Martyn Eggleton, Martyn Lewis, Mary
7448 Ellen Davis, Mary Heacock, Mary Hess, Mary Mi, Masahiro Takagi, Mason Du,
7449 Massimo V.A. Manzari, Mathias Bavay, Mathias Nicolajsen Kjærgaard, Matias
7450 Kruk, Matija Nalis, Matt Alcock, Matt Black, Matt Broach, Matt Hall, Matt
7451 Haughey, Matt Lee, Matt Plec, Matt Skoss, Matt Thompson, Matt Vance, Matt
7452 Wagstaff, Matteo Cocco, Matthew Bendert, Matthew Bergholt, Matthew Darlison,
7453 Matthew Epler, Matthew Hawken, Matthew Heimbecker, Matthew Orstad, Matthew
7454 Peterworth, Matthew Sheehy, Matthew Tucker, Adaptive Handy Apps, LLC,
7455 Mattias Axell, Max Green, Max Kossatz, Max lupo, Max Temkin, Max van
7456 Balgooy, Médéric Droz-dit-Busset, Megan Ingle, Megan Wacha, Meghan
7457 Finlayson, Melissa Aho, Melissa Sterry, Melle Funambuline, Menachem
7458 Goldstein, Micah Bridges, Michael Ailberto, Michael Anderson, Michael
7459 Andersson Skane, Michael C. Stewart, Michael Carroll, Michael Cavette,
7460 Michael Crees, Michael David Johas Teener, Michael Dennis Moore, Michael
7461 Freundt Karlsen, Michael Harries, Michael Hawel, Michael Lewis, Michael May,
7462 Michael Murphy, Michael Murvine, Michael Perkins, Michael Sauers, Michael
7463 St.Onge, Michael Stanford, Michael Stanley, Michael Underwood, Michael
7464 Weiss, Michael Wright, Michael-Andreas Kuttner, Michaela Voigt, Michal
7465 Rosenn, Michał Szymański, Michel Gallez, Michell Zappa, Michelle Heeyeon
7466 You, Miha Batic, Mik Ishmael, Mikael Andersson, Mike Chelen, Mike Habicher,
7467 Mike Maloney, Mike Masnick, Mike McDaniel, Mike Pouraryan, Mike Sheldon,
7468 Mike Stop Continues, Mike Stringer, Mike Wittenstein, Mikkel Ovesen, Mikołaj
7469 Podlaszewski, Millie Gonzalez, Mindi Lovell, Mindy Lin, Mirko
7470 <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Macro</span>”</span> Fichtner, Mitch Featherston, Mitchell Adams, Molika
7471 Oum, Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, Monica Mora, Morgan Loomis, Moritz
7472 Schubert, Mrs. Paganini, Mushin Schilling, Mustafa K Calik, MD, Myk Pilgrim,
7473 Myra Harmer, Nadine Forget-Dubois, Nagle Industries, LLC, Nah Wee Yang,
7474 Natalie Brown, Natalie Freed, Nathan D Howell, Nathan Massey, Nathan Miller,
7475 Neal Gorenflo, Neal McBurnett, Neal Stimler, Neil Wilson, Nele Wollert,
7476 Neuchee Chang, Niall McDonagh, Niall Twohig, Nic McPhee, Nicholas Bentley,
7477 Nicholas Koran, Nicholas Norfolk, Nicholas Potter, Nick Bell, Nick Coghlan,
7478 Nick Isaacs, Nick M. Daly, Nick Vance, Nickolay Vedernikov, Nicky
7479 Weaver-Weinberg, Nico Prin, Nicolas Weidinger, Nicole Hickman, Niek
7480 Theunissen, Nigel Robertson, Nikki Thompson, Nikko Marie, Nikola Chernev,
7481 Nils Lavesson, Noah Blumenson-Cook, Noah Fang, Noah Kardos-Fein, Noah
7482 Meyerhans, Noel Hanigan, Noel Hart, Norrie Mailer, O.P. Gobée, Ohad Mayblum,
7483 Olivia Wilson, Olivier De Doncker, Olivier Schulbaum, Olle Ahnve, Omar
7484 Kaminski, Omar Willey, OpenBuilds, Ove Ødegård, Øystein Kjærnet, Pablo López
7485 Soriano, Pablo Vasquez, Pacific Design, Paige Mackay, Papp István Péter,
7486 Paris Marx, Parker Higgins, Pasquale Borriello, Pat Allan, Pat Hawks, Pat
7487 Ludwig, Pat Sticks, Patricia Brennan, Patricia Rosnel, Patricia Wolf,
7488 Patrick Berry, Patrick Beseda, Patrick Hurley, Patrick M. Lozeau, Patrick
7489 McCabe, Patrick Nafarrete, Patrick Tanguay, Patrick von Hauff, Patrik
7490 Kernstock, Patti J Ryan, Paul A Golder, Paul and Iris Brest, Paul Bailey,
7491 Paul Bryan, Paul Bunkham, Paul Elosegui, Paul Hibbitts, Paul Jacobson, Paul
7492 Keller, Paul Rowe, Paul Timpson, Paul Walker, Pavel Dostál, Peeter Sällström
7493 Randsalu, Peggy Frith, Pen-Yuan Hsing, Penny Pearson, Per Åström, Perry
7494 Jetter, Péter Fankhauser, Peter Hirtle, Peter Humphries, Peter Jenkins,
7495 Peter Langmar, Peter le Roux, Peter Marinari, Peter Mengelers, Peter
7496 O’Brien, Peter Pinch, Peter S. Crosby, Peter Wells, Petr Fristedt, Petr
7497 Viktorin, Petronella Jeurissen, Phil Flickinger, Philip Chung, Philip
7498 Pangrac, Philip R. Skaggs Jr., Philip Young, Philippa Lorne Channer,
7499 Philippe Vandenbroeck, Pierluigi Luisi, Pierre Suter, Pieter-Jan Pauwels,
7500 Playground Inc., Pomax, Popenoe, Pouhiou Noenaute, Prilutskiy Kirill,
7501 Print3Dreams Ltd., Quentin Coispeau, R. Smith, Race DiLoreto, Rachel Mercer,
7502 Rafael Scapin, Rafaela Kunz, Rain Doggerel, Raine Lourie, Rajiv Jhangiani,
7503 Ralph Chapoteau, Randall Kirby, Randy Brians, Raphaël Alexandre, Raphaël
7504 Schröder, Rasmus Jensen, Rayn Drahps, Rayna Stamboliyska, Rebecca Godar,
7505 Rebecca Lendl, Rebecca Weir, Regina Tschud, Remi Dino, Ric Herrero, Rich
7506 McCue, Richard <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">TalkToMeGuy</span>”</span> Olson, Richard Best, Richard
7507 Blumberg, Richard Fannon, Richard Heying, Richard Karnesky, Richard Kelly,
7508 Richard Littauer, Richard Sobey, Richard White, Richard Winchell, Rik
7509 ToeWater, Rita Lewis, Rita Wood, Riyadh Al Balushi, Rob Balder, Rob Berkley,
7510 Rob Bertholf, Rob Emanuele, Rob McAuliffe, Rob McKaughan, Rob Tillie, Rob
7511 Utter, Rob Vincent, Robert Gaffney, Robert Jones, Robert Kelly, Robert
7512 Lawlis, Robert McDonald, Robert Orzanna, Robert Paterson Hunter, Robert
7513 R. Daniel Jr., Robert Ryan-Silva, Robert Thompson, Robert Wagoner, Roberto
7514 Selvaggio, Robin DeRosa, Robin Rist Kildal, Rodrigo Castilhos, Roger Bacon,
7515 Roger Saner, Roger So, Roger Solé, Roger Tregear, Roland Tanglao, Rolf and
7516 Mari von Walthausen, Rolf Egstad, Rolf Schaller, Ron Zuijlen, Ronald
7517 Bissell, Ronald van den Hoff, Ronda Snow, Rory Landon Aronson, Ross Findlay,
7518 Ross Pruden, Ross Williams, Rowan Skewes, Roy Ivy III, Ruben Flores, Rupert
7519 Hitzenberger, Rusi Popov, Russ Antonucci, Russ Spollin, Russell Brand, Rute
7520 Correia, Ruth Ann Carpenter, Ruth White, Ryan Mentock, Ryan Merkley, Ryan
7521 Price, Ryan Sasaki, Ryan Singer, Ryan Voisin, Ryan Weir, S Searle, Salem Bin
7522 Kenaid, Salomon Riedo, Sam Hokin, Sam Twidale, Samantha Levin,
7523 Samantha-Jayne Chapman, Samarth Agarwal, Sami Al-AbdRabbuh, Samuel
7524 A. Rebelsky, Samuel Goëta, Samuel Hauser, Samuel Landete, Samuel Oliveira
7525 Cersosimo, Samuel Tait, Sandra Fauconnier, Sandra Markus, Sandy Bjar, Sandy
7526 ONeil, Sang-Phil Ju, Sanjay Basu, Santiago Garcia, Sara Armstrong, Sara
7527 Lucca, Sara Rodriguez Marin, Sarah Brand, Sarah Cove, Sarah Curran, Sarah
7528 Gold, Sarah McGovern, Sarah Smith, Sarinee Achavanuntakul, Sasha Moss, Sasha
7529 VanHoven, Saul Gasca, Scott Abbott, Scott Akerman, Scott Beattie, Scott
7530 Bruinooge, Scott Conroy, Scott Gillespie, Scott Williams, Sean Anderson,
7531 Sean Johnson, Sean Lim, Sean Wickett, Seb Schmoller, Sebastiaan Bekker,
7532 Sebastiaan ter Burg, Sebastian Makowiecki, Sebastian Meyer, Sebastian
7533 Schweizer, Sebastian Sigloch, Sebastien Huchet, Seokwon Yang, Sergey
7534 Chernyshev, Sergey Storchay, Sergio Cardoso, Seth Drebitko, Seth Gover, Seth
7535 Lepore, Shannon Turner, Sharon Clapp, Shauna Redmond, Shawn Gaston, Shawn
7536 Martin, Shay Knohl, Shelby Hatfield, Sheldon (Vila) Widuch, Sheona Thomson,
7537 Si Jie, Sicco van Sas, Siena Oristaglio, Simon Glover, Simon John King,
7538 Simon Klose, Simon Law, Simon Linder, Simon Moffitt, Solomon Kahn, Solomon
7539 Simon, Soujanna Sarkar, Stanislav Trifonov, Stefan Dumont, Stefan Jansson,
7540 Stefan Langer, Stefan Lindblad, Stefano Guidotti, Stefano Luzardi, Stephan
7541 Meißl, Stéphane Wojewoda, Stephanie Pereira, Stephen Gates, Stephen Murphey,
7542 Stephen Pearce, Stephen Rose, Stephen Suen, Stephen Walli, Stevan Matheson,
7543 Steve Battle, Steve Fisches, Steve Fitzhugh, Steve Guen-gerich, Steve
7544 Ingram, Steve Kroy, Steve Midgley, Steve Rhine, Steven Kasprzyk, Steven
7545 Knudsen, Steven Melvin, Stig-Jørund B. Ö.  Arnesen, Stuart Drewer, Stuart
7546 Maxwell, Stuart Reich, Subhendu Ghosh, Sujal Shah, Sune Bøegh, Susan Chun,
7547 Susan R Grossman, Suzie Wiley, Sven Fielitz, Swan/Starts, Sylvain Carle,
7548 Sylvain Chery, Sylvia Green, Sylvia van Bruggen, Szabolcs Berecz,
7549 T. L. Mason, Tanbir Baeg, Tanya Hart, Tara Tiger Brown, Tara Westover, Tarmo
7550 Toikkanen, Tasha Turner Lennhoff, Tathagat Varma, Ted Timmons, Tej Dhawan,
7551 Teresa Gonczy, Terry Hook, Theis Madsen, Theo M. Scholl, Theresa Bernardo,
7552 Thibault Badenas, Thomas Bacig, Thomas Boehnlein, Thomas Bøvith, Thomas
7553 Chang, Thomas Hartman, Thomas Kent, Thomas Morgan, Thomas Philipp-Edmonds,
7554 Thomas Thrush, Thomas Werkmeister, Tieg Zaharia, Tieu Thuy Nguyen, Tim
7555 Chambers, Tim Cook, Tim Evers, Tim Nichols, Tim Stahmer, Timothée Planté,
7556 Timothy Arfsten, Timothy Hinchliff, Timothy Vollmer, Tina Coffman, Tisza
7557 Gergő, Tobias Schonwetter, Todd Brown, Todd Pousley, Todd Sattersten, Tom
7558 Bamford, Tom Caswell, Tom Goren, Tom Kent, Tom MacWright, Tom Maillioux, Tom
7559 Merkli, Tom Merritt, Tom Myers, Tom Olijhoek, Tom Rubin, Tommaso De Benetti,
7560 Tommy Dahlen, Tony Ciak, Tony Nwachukwu, Torsten Skomp, Tracey Depellegrin,
7561 Tracey Henton, Tracey James, Traci Long DeForge, Trent Yarwood, Trevor
7562 Hogue, Trey Blalock, Trey Hunner, Tryggvi Björgvinsson, Tumuult, Tushar Roy,
7563 Tyler Occhiogrosso, Udo Blenkhorn, Uri Sivan, Vanja Bobas, Vantharith Oum,
7564 Vaughan jenkins, Veethika Mishra, Vic King, Vickie Goode, Victor DePina,
7565 Victor Grigas, Victoria Klassen, Victorien Elvinger, VIGA Manufacture, Vikas
7566 Shah, Vinayak S.Kaujalgi, Vincent O’Leary, Violette Paquet, Virginia
7567 Gentilini, Virginia Kopelman, Vitor Menezes, Vivian Marthell, Wayne
7568 Mackintosh, Wendy Keenan, Werner Wiethege, Wesley Derbyshire, Widar Hellwig,
7569 Willa Köerner, William Bettridge-Radford, William Jefferson, William
7570 Marshall, William Peter Nash, William Ray, William Robins, Willow Rosenberg,
7571 Winie Evers, Wolfgang Renninger, Xavier Antoviaque, Xavier Hugonet, Xavier
7572 Moisant, Xueqi Li, Yancey Strickler, Yann Heurtaux, Yasmine Hajjar, Yu-Hsian
7573 Sun, Yves Deruisseau, Zach Chandler, Zak Zebrowski, Zane Amiralis and Joshua
7574 de Haan, ZeMarmot Open Movie
7575   </p></div></body></html>