Tilfelle	Hvems verdi ble «røvet»	Responsen til domstolene	Responsen til Kongressen
Innspillinger	Komponister	Ingen beskyttelse	Statutory license
Radio	Innspillingsartister	N/A	Ingenting
Kabel-TV	Kringkastere	Ingen beskyttelse	Statutory license
VCR	Filmskapere	Ingen beskyttelse	Ingenting

~~~~Kolofon~~~~

~~~~THE PENGUIN PRESS, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 375 Hudson Street New York, New York~~~~

@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ selv etter at modemet er sl som nå brer om seg i livet on-line har fundamentalt påvirket «folk som er ikke pålogget.» Det finnes ingen bryter som kan isolere oss fra internettets effekt. -

+
Men i motsetning til i boken Code, er argumentet her ikke så mye om internett i seg selv. Istedet er det om konsekvensen av internett for en del av vår tradisjon som er mye mer grunnleggende, og @@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ Den tradisjonen er m sidene som følger, kommer vi fra en tradisjon av «fri kultur»—ikke «fri» som i «fri bar» (for å låne et uttrykk fra stifteren av fri -programvarebevegelsen^[2]), men +programvarebevegelsen^[2]), men «fri» som i «talefrihet», «fritt marked», «frihandel», «fri konkurranse», «fri vilje» og «frie valg». En fri kultur støtter @@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ definert det tjuende du i denne forstand ikke har interesser, vil historien jeg forteller her gi deg problemer. For endringene jeg beskriver påvirker verdier som begge sider av vår politiske kultur anser som grunnleggende. -
+
Vi så et glimt av dette tverrpolitiske raseri på forsommeren i 2003. Da FCC vurderte endringer i reglene for medieeierskap som ville slakke på begrensningene rundt mediekonsentrasjon, sendte en ekstraordinær koalisjon @@ -170,13 +170,13 @@ Safire beskrev Peace and the National Rifle Association, mellom liberale Olympia Snowe og konservative Ted Stevens», formulerte han kanskje det enkleste uttrykket for hva som var på spill: konsentrasjonen av makt. Så spurte han: - +
Høres dette ikke-konservativt ut? Ikke for meg. Denne konsentrasjonen av makt—politisk, selskapsmessig, pressemessig, kulturelt—bør være bannlyst av konservative. Spredningen av makt gjennom lokal kontroll, og derigjennom oppmuntre til individuell deltagelse, er essensen i føderalismen -og det største uttrykk for demokrati.^[3] +og det største uttrykk for demokrati.^[3]
Denne idéen er et element i argumentet til Fri Kultur, selv om min fokus ikke bare er på konsentrasjonen av @@ -219,12 +219,12 @@ denne boken er skrevet.

^[1] David Pogue, «Don't Just Chat, Do Something,» New York Times, 30. januar 2000 -
^[2] +
^[2] Richard M. Stallman, Fri programvare, Frie samfunn 57 (Joshua Gay, red. 2002). -
^[3] William Safire, «The Great Media Gulp,» New York -Times, 22. mai 2003. -

^[4] +

^[4] St. George Tucker, Blackstone's Commentaries 3 (South Hackensack, N.J.: Rothman Reprints, 1969), 18. -

^[5] +

^[5] USA mot Causby, U.S. 328 (1946): 256, 261. Domstolen fant at det kunne være å «ta» hvis regjeringens bruk av sitt land reelt sett hadde ødelagt verdien av eiendomen til Causby. Dette eksemplet ble foreslått for @@ -687,21 +687,21 @@ meg i Keith Aokis flotte stykke, Sovereignty: Notes Toward a cultural Geography of Authorship», Stanford Law Review 48 (1996): 1293, 1333. Se også Paul Goldstein, Real Property (Mineola, N.Y.: -Foundation Press (1984)), 1112–13. -

^[6] +Foundation Press (1984)), 1112–13. +

^[6] Lawrence Lessing, Man of High Fidelity:: Edwin Howard Armstrong (Philadelphia: J. B. Lipincott Company, 1956), 209. -

^[7] Se «Saints: The Heroes and Geniuses of the Electronic Era,» +

^[7] Se «Saints: The Heroes and Geniuses of the Electronic Era,» første elektroniske kirke i USA, hos www.webstationone.com/fecha, tilgjengelig fra link #1. -

^[8]Lessing, 226. -

^[9] +

^[8]Lessing, 226. +

^[9] Lessing, 256. -

^[10] +

^[10] Amanda Lenhart, «The Ever-Shifting Internet Population: A New Look at Internet Access and the Digital Divide,» Pew Internet and American Life Project, 15. april 2003: 6, tilgjengelig fra link #2. -

^[11] +

^[11] Dette er ikke det eneste formålet med opphavsrett, men det er helt klart hovedformålet med opphavsretten slik den er etablert i føderal grunnlov. Opphavsrettslovene i delstatene beskyttet historisk ikke bare kommersielle @@ -710,17 +710,17 @@ interesse n opphavsrettslovene forfatterne makt til å kontrollere spredningen av fakta om seg selv. Se Samuel D. Warren og Louis Brandeis, «The Right to Privacy», Harvard Law Review 4 (1890): 193, 198–200. - -

^[12] + +

^[12] Se Jessica Litman, Digital Copyright (New York: -Prometheus bøker, 2001), kap. 13. -

^[13] +Prometheus bøker, 2001), kap. 13. +

^[13] Amy Harmon, «Black Hawk Download: Moving Beyond Music, Pirates Use New Tools to Turn the Net into an Illicit Video Club,» New York Times, 17. januar 2002. -

^[14] +

^[14] Neil W. Netanel, «Copyright and a Democratic Civil Society,» -Yale Law Journal 106 (1996): 283. +Yale Law Journal 106 (1996): 283.

Del I. «Piratvirksomhet»

Helt siden loven begynte å regulere kreative eierrettigheter, har det vært en krig mot «piratvirksomhet». De presise konturene av dette @@ -731,8 +731,8 @@ noteark,

En person kan bruke kopien til å spille den, men han har ingen rett til å robbe forfatteren for profitten, ved å lage flere kopier og distribuere -etter eget forgodtbefinnende.^[15] -

+etter eget forgodtbefinnende.^[15] +

I dag er vi midt inne i en annen «krig» mot «piratvirksomhet». Internettet har fremprovosert denne krigen. @@ -771,17 +771,17 @@ kreative arbeidet til andre, s tar noe av verdi fra noen andre, bør jeg få tillatelse fra dem. Å ta noe som har verdi fra andre uten tillatelse er galt. Det er en form for piratvirksomhet. -

^[15] +

^[15] Bach v. Longman, 98 Eng. Rep. 1274 (1777) (Mansfield). -

^[16] +

^[16] Se Rochelle Dreyfuss, «Expressive Genericity: Trademarks as Language in the Pepsi Generation,» Notre Dame Law Review 65 (1990): 397. -

^[17] +

^[17] Lisa Bannon, «The Birds May Sing, but Campers Can't Unless They Pay Up,» Wall Street Journal, 21. august 1996, tilgjengelig fra link #3; Jonathan Zittrain, «Calling Off the Copyright War: In Battle of Property vs. Free Speech, No One Wins,» Boston -Globe, 24. november 2002. -

^[18] +Globe, 24. november 2002. +

^[18] I The Rise of the Creative Class (New York: Basic Books, 2002), dokumenterer Richard Florida en endring i arbeidsstokken mot @@ -857,7 +857,7 @@ kreativitetsarbeide. Hans tekst omhandler derimot ikke direkte de juridiske vilkår som kreativiteten blir muliggjort eller hindret under. Jeg er helt klart enig med ham i viktigheten og betydningen av denne endringen, men jeg tror også at vilkårene som disse endringene blir aktivert under er mye -vanskeligere. +vanskeligere.

Kapittel en: Skaperne

I 1928 ble en tegnefilmfigur født. En tidlig Mikke Mus debuterte i mai dette året, i en stille flopp ved navn Plane Crazy. @@ -887,12 +887,12 @@ bl Effekten på vårt lille publikum var intet mindre enn elektrisk. De reagerte nesten instinktivt til denne union av lyd og bevegelse. Jeg trodde de tullet med meg. Så de puttet meg i publikum og satte igang på nytt. Det -var grufullt, men det var fantastisk. Og det var noe nytt!^[19] +var grufullt, men det var fantastisk. Og det var noe nytt!^[19]

Disneys daværende partner, og en av animasjonsverdenens mest ekstraordinære talenter, Ub Iwerks, uttalte det sterkere: «Jeg har aldri vært så begeistret i hele mitt liv. Ingenting annet har noen sinne vært like -bra.» +bra.»

Disney hadde laget noe helt nyt, basert på noe relativt nytt. Synkronisert lyd ga liv til en form for kreativitet som sjeldent hadde—unntatt fra @@ -916,7 +916,7 @@ popul Steamboat Bill, Jr. kom før Disneys tegnefilm Steamboat Willie. Det er ingen tilfeldighet at titlene er så like. Steamboat Willie er en direkte tegneserieparodi av Steamboat -Bill,^[20] og begge bygger på en felles sang +Bill,^[20] og begge bygger på en felles sang som kilde. Det er ikke kun fra nyskapningen med synkronisert lyd i The Jazz Singer at vi får Steamboat Willie. Det er også fra Buster Keatons nyskapning Steamboat @@ -925,7 +925,7 @@ at vi f

Denne «låningen» var ikke unik, hverken for Disney eller for industrien. Disney apet alltid etter full-lengde massemarkedsfilmene rundt -ham.^[21] Det samme gjorde mange andre. +ham.^[21] Det samme gjorde mange andre. Tidlige tegnefilmer er stappfulle av etterapninger—små variasjoner over suksessfulle temaer, gamle historier fortalt på nytt. Nøkkelen til suksess var brilliansen i forskjellene. Med Disney var det lyden som ga @@ -966,7 +966,7 @@ Planet (2003). I alle disse tilfellene, har Disney (eller Disney, Inc.) hentet kreativitet fra kultur rundt ham, blandet med kreativiteten fra sitt eget ekstraordinære talent, og deretter brent denne blandingen inn i sjelen til sin kultur. Hente, blande og brenne. -

Dette er en type kreativitet. Det er en kreativitet som vi bør huske på og feire. Det er noen som vil si at det finnes ingen kreativitet bortsett fra denne typen. Vi trenger ikke gå så langt for å anerkjenne dens betydning. @@ -978,7 +978,7 @@ kulturen rundt oss og omformer den til noe annet. fersk. Allemannseie i 1928 var ikke veldig gammelt og var dermed ganske levende. Gjennomsnittlig vernetid i opphavsretten var bare rundt tredve år—for den lille delen av kreative verk som faktisk var -opphavsrettsbeskyttet.^[22] Det betyr at i +opphavsrettsbeskyttet.^[22] Det betyr at i tredve år, i gjennomsnitt, hadde forfattere eller kreative verks opphavsrettighetsinnehaver en «eksklusiv rett» til a kontrollere bestemte typer bruk av verket. For å bruke disse @@ -1078,8 +1078,8 @@ amerikansk tegneseriers f Japan i dag. … Amerikanske tegneserier kom til verden ved å kopiere hverandre. … Det er slik [kunstnerne] lærer å tegne—ved å se i tegneseriebøker og ikke følge streken, men ved å se på dem og kopiere -dem» og bygge basert på dem.^[23] -

+dem» og bygge basert på dem.^[23] +

Amerikanske tegneserier nå er ganske annerledes, forklarer Winick, delvis på grunn av de juridiske problemene med å tilpasse tegneserier slik doujinshi får lov til. Med for eksempel Supermann, fortalte Winick meg, «er det @@ -1087,14 +1087,14 @@ en rekke regler, og du m «ikke kan» gjøre. «For en som lager tegneserier er det frustrerende å måtte begrense seg til noen parameter som er femti år gamle.» -

Normen i Japan reduserer denne juridiske utfordringen. Noen sier at det nettopp er den oppsamlede fordelen i det japanske mangamarkedet som forklarer denne reduksjonen. Jussprofessor Salil Mehra ved Temple University hypnotiserer for eksempel med at manga-markedet aksepterer disse teoretiske bruddene fordi de får mangamarkedet til å bli rikere og mer produktivt. Alle ville få det verre hvis doujinshi ble bannlyst, så loven -bannlyser ikke doujinshi.^[24] +bannlyser ikke doujinshi.^[24]

Problemet med denne historien, derimot, og som Mehra helt klart erkjenner, er at mekanismen som produserer denne «hold hendene @@ -1130,7 +1130,7 @@ du ikke hadde tenkt igjennom f Vi lever i en verden som feirer «eiendom». Jeg er en av de som feierer. Jeg tror på verdien av eiendom generelt, og jeg tror også på verdien av den sære formen for eiendom som advokater kaller -«immateriell eiendom».^[25] Et +«immateriell eiendom».^[25] Et stort og variert samfunn kan ikke overleve uten eiendom, og et moderne samfunn kan ikke blomstre uten immaterielle eierrettigheter.

@@ -1204,12 +1204,12 @@ uansett om de er tilknyttet et studio eller ikke? Frie kulturer er kulturer som etterlater mye åpent for andre å bygge på. Ufrie, eller tillatelse-kulturer etterlater mye mindre. Vår var en fri kultur. Den er på tur til å bli mindre fri. -

^[19] +

^[19] Leonard Maltin, Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons (New York: Penguin Books, 1987), 34–35. -

^[20] +

^[20] Jeg er takknemlig overfor David Gerstein og hans nøyaktige historie, @@ -1222,12 +1222,12 @@ No. 1 «The Turkey in the Straw,» var allerede allemannseie. Brev fra David Smith til Harry Surden, 10. juli 2003, tilgjenglig i arkivet til forfatteren. -

^[21] +

^[21] Han var også tilhenger av allmannseiet. Se Chris Sprigman, «The Mouse that Ate the Public Domain,» Findlaw, 5. mars 2002, fra link #5. -

^[22] +

^[22] Inntil 1976 ga opphavsrettsloven en forfatter to mulige verneperioder: en @@ -1239,12 +1239,12 @@ fornyingsvernetiden er 28 år. Fornyingsdata og andre relevante data ligger på nettsidene tilknyttet denne boka, tilgjengelig fra link #6. -

^[23] +

^[23] For en utmerket historie, se Scott McCloud, Reinventing Comics (New York: Perennial, 2000). -

^[24] +

^[24] Se Salil K. Mehra, «Copyright and Comics in Japan: Does Law Explain @@ -1255,7 +1255,7 @@ anime-kunstnere til ikke alle manga-kunstnere kan være bedre stilt hvis de setter sin individuelle egeninteresse til side og bestemmer seg for ikke å forfølge sine juridiske rettigheter. Dette er essensielt en løsning på fangens dilemma.» -

^[25] +

^[25] Begrepet immateriell eiendom er av relativ ny opprinnelse. Se See Siva Vaidhyanathan, Copyrights and @@ -1264,7 +1264,7 @@ ogs Random House, 2001), 293 n. 26. Begrepet presist beskriver et sett med «eiendoms»-rettigheter—opphavsretter, patenter, varemerker og forretningshemmeligheter—men egenskapene til disse -rettighetene er svært forskjellige. +rettighetene er svært forskjellige.

Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

I 1839 fant Louis Daguerre opp den første praktiske teknologien for å produsere det vi ville kalle «fotografier». Rimelig nok ble de @@ -1272,7 +1272,7 @@ kalt feltet var dermed begrenset til profesjonelle og noen få ivrige og velstående amatører. (Det var til og med en amerikansk Daguerre-forening som hjalp til med å regulere industrien, slik alle slike foreninger gjør, -ved å holde konkurransen ned slik at prisene var høye.) +ved å holde konkurransen ned slik at prisene var høye.)
Men til tross for høye priser var etterspørselen etter daguerreotyper sterk. Dette inspirerte oppfinnere til å finne enklere og billigere måter å @@ -1282,7 +1282,7 @@ glass, og m 1870-tallet ble tørrplater utviklet, noe som gjorde det enklere å skille det å ta et bilde fra å fremkalle det. Det var fortsatt plater av glass, og dermed var det fortsatt ikke en prosess som var innenfor rekkevidden til de -fleste amatører. +fleste amatører.
Den teknologiske endringen som gjorde masse-fotografering mulig skjedde ikke @@ -1297,8 +1297,8 @@ kunne utvide andelen fotografer. Eastman utviklet bøyelig, emulsjons-belagt papirfilm og plasserte ruller med dette i små, enkle kameraer: Kodaken. Enheten ble markedsfør med grunnlag dens enkelhet. «Du trykker på knappen og vi fikser -resten.»^[26] Som han beskrev det i -The Kodak Primer: +resten.»^[26] Som han beskrev det i +The Kodak Primer:
Prinsippet til Kodak-systemet er skillet mellom arbeidet som enhver kan utføre når en tar fotografier, fra arbeidet som kun en ekspert kan @@ -1307,7 +1307,7 @@ tilstrekkelig intelligens til en knapp, med et instrument som helt fjernet fra praksisen med å fotografere nødvendigheten av uvanlig utstyr eller for den del, noe som helst spesiell kunnskap om kunstarten. Det kan tas i bruk uten forutgående studier, uten -et mørkerom og uten kjemikalier.^[27] +et mørkerom og uten kjemikalier.^[27]
For $25 kunne alle ta bilder. Det var allerede film i kameraet, og når det var brukt ble kameraet returnert til en Eastman-fabrikk hvor filmen ble @@ -1317,9 +1317,9 @@ eksplosiv vekst i fotografering blant folket. Eastmans kamera ble lagt ut for salg i 1888, og et år senere trykket Kodak mer enn seks tusen negativer om dagen. Fra 1888 til 1909, mens produksjonen i industrien vokste med 4,7 prosent, økte salget av fotografisk utstyr og materiale med 11 -prosent.^[28] Salget til Eastman Kodak i -samme periode opplevde en årlig vekst på over 17 prosent.^[29] -
+prosent.^[28] Salget til Eastman Kodak i +samme periode opplevde en årlig vekst på over 17 prosent.^[29] +
Den virkelige betydningen av oppfinnelsen til Eastman, var derimot ikke @@ -1330,7 +1330,7 @@ stand til tidligere. Som forfatter Brian Coe skriver, gang tilbød fotoalbumet mannen i gata et permanent arkiv over hans familie og dens aktiviteter. … For første gang i historien fantes det en autentisk visuell oppføring av utseende og aktivitet til vanlige mennesker -laget uten [skrivefør] tolkning eller forutinntatthet.»^[30] +laget uten [skrivefør] tolkning eller forutinntatthet.»^[30]
På denne måten var Kodak-kameraet og film uttrykksteknologier. Blyanten og malepenselen var selvfølgelig også en uttrykksteknologi. Men det tok årevis @@ -1349,7 +1349,7 @@ oppfinnelse vokste i var ogs fotografering, var det en rekke av rettsavgjørelser som godt kunne ha endret kursen til fotograferingen betydelig. Domstoler ble spurt om fotografen, amatør eller profesjonell, måtte ha ha tillatelse før han kunne fange og -trykke hvilket som helst bilde han ønsket. Svaret var nei.^[31] +trykke hvilket som helst bilde han ønsket. Svaret var nei.^[31]
Argumentene til fordel for å kreve tillatelser vil høres overraskende kjent @@ -1358,12 +1358,12 @@ fotografert—r tok målets sjel. På samme måte som Disney ikke var fri til å ta blyantene som hans animatører brukte til å tegne Mikke, så skulle heller ikke disse fotografene være fri til å ta bilder som de fant verdi i. -
+
På den andre siden var et argument som også bør bør være kjent. Joda, det var kanskje noe av verdi som ble brukt. Men borgerne burde ha rett til å fange i hvert fall de bildene som var tatt av offentlig område. (Louis Brandeis, som senere ble høyesterettsjustitiarus, mente regelen skulle være -annerledes for bilder tatt av private områder.^[32]) Det kan være at dette betyr at fotografen får noe for ingenting. +annerledes for bilder tatt av private områder.^[32]) Det kan være at dette betyr at fotografen får noe for ingenting. På samme måte som Disney kunne hente inspirasjon fra Steamboat Bill, Jr. eller Grimm-brødrene, så burde fotografene stå fritt til å fange et bilde uten å kompensere kilden. @@ -1375,7 +1375,7 @@ var det antatt at tillatelse var gitt. Frihet var utgangspunktet. (Loven ga etter en stund et unntak for berømte personer: kommersielle fotografer som tok bilder av berømte personer for kommersielle formål har flere begrensninger enn resten av oss. Men i det vanlige tilfellet, kan bildet -fanges uten å klarere rettighetene for a fange det.^[33]) +fanges uten å klarere rettighetene for a fange det.^[33])
Vi kan kun spekulere om hvordan fotografering ville ha utviklet seg om loven hadde slått ut den andre veien. Hvis den hadde vært mot fotografen, da @@ -1415,12 +1415,12 @@ den filmede kulturen som de finner over alt rundt seg. Hvert disse bussene mer enn tredve skoler og gir mellom tre hundre og fire hundre barn muligheten til å lære noe om media ved å gjøre noe med media. Ved å gjøre, så tenker de. Ved å fikle, så lærer de. -
+
Disse bussene er ikke billige, men teknologien de har med seg blir billigere og billigere. Kostnaden til et høykvalitets digitalt videosystem har falt dramatisk. Som en analytiker omtalte det, «for fem år siden kostet et godt sanntids redigerinssystem for digital video $25 000. I dag kan du -få profesjonell kvalitet for $595.»^[34] Disse bussene er fylt med teknologi som ville kostet +få profesjonell kvalitet for $595.»^[34] Disse bussene er fylt med teknologi som ville kostet hundre-tusenvis av dollar for bare ti år siden. Og det er nå mulig å forestille seg ikke bare slike busser, men klasserom rundt om i landet hvor unger kan lære mer og mer av det lærerne kaller @@ -1432,16 +1432,16 @@ administrerende direkt evnen til … å forstå, analysere og dekonstruere mediebilder. Dets mål er å gjøre [unger] i stand til å forstå hvordan mediene fungerer, hvordan de er konstruert, hvordan de blir levert, og hvordan folk bruker -dem». +dem».
Dette kan virke som en litt rar måte å tenke på «skrivefør». For de fleste handler skrivefør å kunne lese og skrive. «Skriveføre» folk kjenner ting som Faulkner, Hemingway og å kjenne igjen delte infinitiver. -
+
Mulig det. Men i en verden hvor barn ser i gjennomsnitt 390 timer med TV-reklaager i året, eller generelt mellom 20 000 og 45 000 -reklameinnslag,^[35] så er det mer og mer +reklameinnslag,^[35] så er det mer og mer viktig å forstå «gramatikken» til media. For på samme måte som det er en gramatikk for det skrevne ord, så er det også en for media. Og akkurat slik som unger lærer å skrive ved å skrive masse grusom prosa, så @@ -1464,13 +1464,13 @@ Ferdigheten kom fra erfaring med den. En lærer å skrive ved å skrive, og deretter reflektere over det en har skrevet. En lærer å skrive med bilder ved å lage dem, og deretter reflektere over det en har laget. -
+
Denne gramatikken har endret seg etter hvert som media har endret seg. Da det kun var film, som Elizabeth Daley, administrerende direktør ved Universitetet i Sør-Califorias Anneberg-senter for kommunkasjon og rektor ved USC skole for Kino-Televisjon, forklarte for meg, var gramatikken om «plasseringen av objekter, farger, … rytme, skritt og -tekstur».^[36] Men etter hvert som +tekstur».^[36] Men etter hvert som datamaskiner åpner opp et interaktivt rom hvor en historie blir «spillt» i tillegg til opplevd, endrer gramatikken seg. Den enkle kontrollen til forstellerstemmen er forsvunnet, og dermed er andre @@ -1479,8 +1479,8 @@ fortellerstemmen til science fiction. Men da han fors dataspill basert på et av sine verk, så var det et nytt håndverk han måtte lære. Det var ikke åpenbart hvordan en leder folk gjennom et spill uten at de far følelsen av å ha blitt ledet, selv for en enormt vellykket -forfatter.^[37] -
+forfatter.^[37] +
Akkurat denne ferdigheten er håndverket en lærer til de som lager filmer. Som Daley skriver, «folk er svært overrasket over hvordan de blir ledet gjennom en film. Den er perfekt konstruert for å hindre deg fra @@ -1509,10 +1509,10 @@ forst verktøyene som gir skriving mulighet til å veilede eller villede. Målet med enhver skriveførhet, og denne skriveførheten spesielt, er å «gi folket myndighet til å velge det språket som passer for det de trenger å lage eller -uttrykke».^[38] Det gir studenter +uttrykke».^[38] Det gir studenter mulighet «til å kommunisere i språket til det tjueførste -århundret».^[39] -
+århundret».^[39] +
Som det alle andre språk, læres dette språket lettere for noen enn for andre. Det kommer ikke nødvendigvis lettere for de som gjør det godt skriftlig. Daley og Stephanie Barish, direktør for Institutt for @@ -1588,7 +1588,7 @@ Fordi de trengte det. Det var en grunn til noe, i motsetning til å kun danse etter din pipe. De trengte faktisk å bruke det språket de ikke håndterte veldig bra. Men de hadde begynt å forstå at de hadde mye gjennomslagskraft med dette språket. -

Da to fly krasjet inn i World Trade Center, og et annet inn i Pentagon, og et fjerde inn i et jorde i Pennsylvania, snudde alle medier verden rundt seg til denne nyheten. Ethvert moment for omtreng hver eneste dag den uka, og @@ -1603,7 +1603,7 @@ over skjermen. Det var en formel for intervjuer. Det var «balanse» og seriøsitet. Dette var nyheter koreaografert slik vi i stadig større grad forventer det, «nyheter som underholdning», selv om underholdningen er en tragedie. -
+
Men i tillegg til disse produserte nyhetene om «tragedien 11. september», kunne de av oss som er knyttet til internettet i tillegg se en svært annerledes produksjon. Internettet er fullt av @@ -1660,7 +1660,7 @@ naturligvis valg, og mesteparten av tiden tillater domstolene at disse valgene teller. Et relativt lite antall mennesker stemmer i disse valgene. Syklusen med disse valgene har blitt totalt profesjonalisert og rutinepreget. De fleste av oss tenker på dette som demokrati. -
+
Men demokrati har aldri kun handlet om valg. Demokrati betyr at folket styrer, og å styre betyr noe mer enn kun valg. I vår tradisjon betyr det også kontroll gjennom gjennomtenkt meningsbrytning. Dette var idéen som @@ -1674,11 +1674,11 @@ frem. De diskuterte. Medlemmene argumenterte om hva som var «riktig» resultat, de forsøkte å overbevise hverandre om «riktig»resultat, og i hvert fall i kriminalsaker måtte de bli enige om et enstemming resultat for at prosessen skulle -avsluttes.^[40] +avsluttes.^[40]
Og likevel fremheves denne institusjonen i USA i dag. Og i dets sted er det ingen systematisk innsats for å muliggjøre borger-diskusjon. Noen gjør en -innsats for å lage en slik institusjon.^[41] +innsats for å lage en slik institusjon.^[41] Og i noen landsbyer i New England er det noe i nærheten av diskusjon igjen. Men for de fleste av oss mesteparten av tiden, er det ingen tid og sted for å gjennomføre «demokratisk diskusjon». @@ -1688,7 +1688,7 @@ skje. Vi, det mektigste demokratiet i verden, har utviklet en sterk norm mot å diskutere politikk. Det er greit å diskutere politikk med folk du er enig med, men det er uhøflig å diskutere politikk med folk du er uenig med. Politisk debatt blir isolert, og isolert diskusjon blir mer -ekstrem.^[42] Vi sier det våre venner vil +ekstrem.^[42] Vi sier det våre venner vil høre, og hører veldig lite utenom hva våre venner sier.
@@ -1710,8 +1710,8 @@ det. Betydningene av disse bloggene er liten nå, men ikke ubetydelig. Navnet Howard Dean har i stor grad forsvunnet fra 2004-presidentvalgkampen bortsett fra hos noen få blogger. Men selv om antallet lesere er lavt, så har det å -lese dem en effekt. -
+lese dem en effekt. +
En direkte effekt er på historier som hadde en annerledes livssyklus i de store mediene. Trend Lott-affæren er et eksempel. Da Logg «sa feil» på en fest for senator Storm Thurmond, og essensielt lovpriste @@ -1721,7 +1721,7 @@ Det skjedde. Men han regnet ikke med dens livssyklus i bloggsf Bloggerne fortsatte å undersøke historien. Etter hvert dukket flere og flere tilfeller av tilsvarende «feiluttalelser» opp. Så dukket historien opp igjen hos de store mediene. Lott ble til slutt tvinget til å -trekke seg som leder for senatets flertall.^[43] +trekke seg som leder for senatets flertall.^[43]
Denne annerledes syklusen er mulig på grunn av at et tilsvarende kommersielt press ikke eksisterer hos blogger slik det gjør hos andre kanaler. @@ -1746,12 +1746,12 @@ m meg. «En amatørjournalist har ganske enkelt ikke interessekonflikt, eller interessekonflikten er så enkelt å avsløre at du liksom vet du kan rydde den av veien.» -
+
Disse konfliktene blir mer viktig etter hvert som mediene blir mer konsentert (mer om dette under). Konsenterte medier kan skjule mer fra offentligheten enn ikke-konsenterte medier kan—slik CNN innrømte at de gjorde etter Iraq-krigen fordi de var rett for konsekvensene for sine egne -ansatte.^[44] De trenger også å opprettholde +ansatte.^[44] De trenger også å opprettholde en mer konsistent rapportering. (Midt under Irak-krigen, leste jeg en melding på Internet fra noen som på det tidspunktet lyttet på satellitt-forbindelsen til en reporter i Iraq. New York-hovedkvarteret ba @@ -1765,7 +1765,7 @@ betydningen til en Olympisk atlet, det vil si ikke betalt av noen for komme med deres rapport. Det tillater en mye bredere rekke av innspill til en historie, slik rapporteringen Columbia-katastrofen avdekket, når hundrevis fra hele sørvest-USA vendte seg til internettet for å gjenfortelle -hva de hadde sett.^[45] Og det får lesere +hva de hadde sett.^[45] Og det får lesere til å lese på tvers av en rekke fortellinger og «triangulere», som Winer formulerer det, sannheten. Blogger, sier Winer, «kommunserer direkte med vår velgermasse, og mellommannen er @@ -1777,7 +1777,7 @@ blogger. Winer, for offentlige aktører og også i større grad for private aktører. Det er ikke klart at «journalismen» er glad for dette—noen journalister har blitt bedt om å kutte ut sin -blogging.^[46] Men det er klart at vi +blogging.^[46] Men det er klart at vi fortsatt er i en overgangsfase. «Mye av det vi gjør nå er oppvarmingsøvelser», fortalte Winer meg. Det er mye som må modne før dette området har sin modne effekt. Og etter som inkludering av innhold i @@ -1797,7 +1797,7 @@ at noen har bevist at han tok feil. kritikk forbedrer demokratiet. I dag er det antagelig et par millioner blogger der det skrives på denne måten. Når det er ti milloner, så vil det være noe ekstraordært å rapportere. -
+
John Seely Brown er sjefsforsker ved Xerox Corporation. Hans arbeid, i følge hans eget nettsted, er «menneskelig læring og … å skape kunnskapsøkologier for å skape … innovasjon». @@ -1850,7 +1850,7 @@ fremmer mye mer enn tekst. hvis du er kunstnerisk, hvis du er visuell, hvis du er interessert i film …da er det en masse du kan gå igang med på dette mediet. Det kan fremme og ta hensyn til alle disse formene for intelligens.» -
+
Brown snakker om hva Elizabeth Daley, Stephanie Barish Og Just Think! lærer bort: at denne fiklingen med kultur lærer såvel som den skaper. Den utvikler @@ -1866,7 +1866,7 @@ grad, forstyrrer friheten som teknolog, nysgjerrigheten, ellers ville sikre. Disse begresningene har blitt fokusen for forskere og akademikere. Professor Ed Felten ved Princeton (som vi vil se mer fra i kapittel 10) har utviklet et kraftfylt argument til fordel for «retten til å fikle» slik det -gjøres i informatikk og til kunnskap generelt.^[47] Men bekymringen til Brown er tidligere, og mer fundamentalt. Det +gjøres i informatikk og til kunnskap generelt.^[47] Men bekymringen til Brown er tidligere, og mer fundamentalt. Det handler om hva slags læring unger kan få, eller ikke kan få, på grunn av loven.
@@ -1879,7 +1879,7 @@ f undertrykker den naturlige tendensen i dagens digitale unger. … We bygger en arkitektur som frigjør 60 prosent av hjernen [og] et juridisk system som stenger ned den delen av hjernen». -
+
Vi bygger en teknologi som tar magien til Kodak, mikser inn bevegelige bilder og lyd, og legger inn plass for kommentarer og en mulighet til å spre denne kreativiteten over alt. Men vi bygger loven for å stenge ned denne @@ -1888,28 +1888,28 @@ teknologien. «Ikke måten å drive en kultur på», sa Brewster Kahle, som vi møtte i kapittel 9, kommenterte til meg i et sjeldent øyeblikk av nedstemthet. -

^[26] +

^[26] Reese V. Jenkins, Images and Enterprise (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975), 112. -
^[27] +
^[27] Brian Coe, The Birth of Photography (New York: -Taplinger Publishing, 1977), 53. -
^[28] +Taplinger Publishing, 1977), 53. +
^[28] Jenkins, 177. -
^[29] +
^[29] Basert på et diagram i Jenkins, s. 178. -
^[30] +
^[30] Coe, 58. -
^[31] +
^[31] For illustrerende saker, se for eksempel, Pavesich @@ -1917,11 +1917,11 @@ mot N.E. Life Ins. Co., 50 S.E. 68 (Ga. 1905); Foster-Milburn Co. mot Chinn, 123090 S.W. 364, 366 (Ky. 1909); Corliss mot Walker, 64 F. 280 (Mass. Dist. Ct. 1894). -
^[32] +
^[32] Samuel D. Warren og Louis D. Brandeis, «The Right to Privacy», -Harvard Law Review 4 (1890): 193. -
^[33] +Harvard Law Review 4 (1890): 193. +
^[33] Se Melville B. Nimmer, «The Right of Publicity», Law @@ -1930,62 +1930,62 @@ and Contemporary Problems 19 (1954): 203; William L. Prosser, (1960) 398–407; White mot Samsung Electronics America, Inc., 971 F. 2d 1395 (9th Cir. 1992), sert. nektet, 508 U.S. 951 (1993). -
^[34] +
^[34] H. Edward Goldberg, «Essential Presentation Tools: Hardware and Software You Need to Create Digital Multimedia Presentations,» cadalyst, februar 2002, tilgjengelig fra link #7. -
^[35] +
^[35] Judith Van Evra, Television and Child Development (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990); «Findings on Family and TV Study», Denver Post, 25. mai 1997, B6. -
^[36] +
^[36] Intervju med Elizabeth Daley og Stephanie Barish, 13. desember 2002. - -
^[37] + +
^[37] Se Scott Steinberg, «Crichton Gets Medieval on PCs», E!online, 4. november 2000, tilgjengelig fra link #8; «Timeline», 22. november 2000, tilgjengelig fra link #9. -
^[38] +
^[38] -Intervju med Daley og Barish. -
^[39] +Intervju med Daley og Barish. +
^[39] ibid. -
^[40] +
^[40] Se for eksempel Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, bk. 1, overs. Henry Reeve (New York: Bantam Books, 2000), kap. 16. -
^[41] +
^[41] Bruce Ackerman og James Fishkin, «Deliberation Day», Journal of Political Philosophy 10 (2) (2002): 129. -
^[42] +
^[42] Cass Sunstein, Republic.com (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 65–80, 175, 182, 183, 192. -
^[43] +
^[43] Noah Shachtman, «With Incessant Postings, a Pundit Stirs the Pot», New York Times, 16. januar 2003, G5. -
^[44] +
^[44] Telefonintervju med David Winer, 16. april 2003. -
^[45] +
^[45] John Schwartz, «Loss of the Shuttle: The Internet; A Wealth of @@ -1994,7 +1994,7 @@ Information Online Strong Overall», Online Journalism Review, 2. februar 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #10. -
^[46] +
^[46] Se Michael Falcone, «Does an Editor's Pencil Ruin a Web Log?» New York Times, 29. september 2003, C4. («Ikke @@ -2004,15 +2004,15 @@ sin rapportering av krigen 9. mars, stoppet forespørsel fra sine sjefer. I fjor fikk Steve Olafson, en Houston Chronicle-reporter, sparken for å ha hatt en personlig web-logg, publisert under pseudonym, som handlet om noen av -temaene og folkene som han dekket») -
^[47] +temaene og folkene som han dekket») +
^[47] Se for eksempel, Edward Felten og Andrew Appel, «Technological Access Control Interferes with Noninfringing Scholarship,» Communications of the Association for Computer Machinery 43 (2000): 9. -
Kapittel tre: Kataloger
+

^[48] +

^[48] Tim Goral, «Recording Industry Goes After Campus P-2-P Networks: Suit Alleges $97.8 Billion in Damages,» Professional Media Group LCC 6 (2003): 5, tilgjengelig fra 2003 WL 55179443. -

^[49] +

^[49] Occupational Employment Survey, U.S. Dept. of Labor (2001) (27–2042—Musikere og Sangere). Se også National Endowment for the Arts, More Than One in a Blue Moon (2000). -

^[50] +

^[50] Douglas Lichtman kommer med et relatert poeng i «KaZaA and @@ -2212,7 +2212,7 @@ er at forrige generasjon pirater blir del av denne generasjonens borgerskap—inntil nå.

4.1. Film

-Filmindustrien i Hollywood var bygget av flyktende pirater.^[51] Skapere og regisører migrerte fra østkysten til +Filmindustrien i Hollywood var bygget av flyktende pirater.^[51] Skapere og regisører migrerte fra østkysten til California tidlig i det tjuende århundret delvis for å slippe unna kontrollene som patenter ga oppfinneren av det å lage filmer, Thomas Edison. Disse kontrollene be utøvet gjennom et @@ -2239,13 +2239,13 @@ har blitt legendariske, konfiserte General Film ulisensiert utstyr, stoppet varelevering til kinoer som viste ulisensiert fil, og effektivt monopoliserte distribusjon ved å kjøpe opp alle USAs filmsentraler, med unntak av den ene som var eid av den uavhengige William Fox som motsto -kartellet selv etter at hans lisens var trukket tilbake.^[52] +kartellet selv etter at hans lisens var trukket tilbake.^[52]

Napsterne i de dager, de «uavhengige», var selskaper som Fox. Og ikke mindre enn i dag ble disse uavhengige intenst motarbeidet. «Opptak ble avbrutt av stjålet maskineri, og 'uhell' som førte til tapte negativer, utstyr, bygninger og noen ganger liv og lemmer skjedde -ofte.»^[53] Dette fikk de uavhengige +ofte.»^[53] Dette fikk de uavhengige til å flykte til østkysten. Californa var fjernt nok fra Edisons innflytelse til at filmskaperne der kunne røve hans nyvinninger uten å frykte loven. Og lederne blant Hollywods filmskapere, Fox mest @@ -2262,7 +2262,7 @@ kreative rettigheter. Musikkindustrien ble født av en annen type piratvirksomhet, dog for å forstå hvordan krever at en setter seg inn i detaljer om hvordan loven regulerer musikk. -

På den tiden da Edison og Henri Fourneaux fant opp maskiner for å reprodusere musikk (Edison fonografen, Fourneaux det automatiske pianoet), gav loven komponister eksklusive rettigheter til å kontrollere kopier av @@ -2271,7 +2271,7 @@ deres musikk. Med andre ord, i 1900, hvis jeg Russels populære låt «Happy Mose», sa loven at jeg måtte betale for rettigheten til å få en kopi av notearkene, og jeg måtte også betale for å ha rett til å fremføre det offentlig. -

Men hva hvis jeg ønsket å spille inn «Happy Mose» ved hjelp av Edisons fonograf eller Fourneaux automatiske piano? Her snublet loven. Det var klart nok at jeg måtte kjøpe en kopi av notene som jeg fremførte når jeg @@ -2287,39 +2287,39 @@ ikke klart at jeg skyldte komponisten noe. Og enda viktigere, det var ikke klart om jeg skyldte komponisten noe hvis jeg så laget kopier av disse innspillingene. På grunn av dette hullet i loven, sa kunne jeg i effekt røve noen andres sang uten å betale dets komponist noe. -

Komponistene (og utgiverne) var ikke veldig glade for denne kapasiteten til å røve. Som Senator Alfred Kittredge fra Sør-Dakota formulerte -det, +det,

Forestill dere denne urettferdigheten. En komponist skriver en sang eller en opera. En utgiver kjøper til et høy sum rettighetene til denne, og registrerer opphavsretten til den. Så kommer de fonografiske selskapene og selskapene som skjærer musikk-ruller og med vitende og vilje stjeler arbeidet som kommer fra hjernet til komponisten og utgiveren uten å bry seg -om [deres] rettigheter.^[54] -

+om [deres] rettigheter.^[54] +

Innovatørene som utviklet teknologien for å spille inn andres arbeide «snyltet på innsatsen, arbeidet, tallentet og geniet til amerikanske -komponister»,^[55] og +komponister»,^[55] og «musikkpubliseringsindistrien» var dermed «fullstendig i -denne piratens vold».^[56] Som John +denne piratens vold».^[56] Som John Philip Sousa formulerte det, så direkte som det kan sies, «når de -tjener penger på mine stykker, så vil jeg ha en andel».^[57] +tjener penger på mine stykker, så vil jeg ha en andel».^[57]

These arguments have familiar echoes in the wars of our day. So, too, do the arguments on the other side. The innovators who developed the player piano argued that «it is perfectly demonstrable that the introduction of automatic music players has not deprived any composer of anything he had before their introduction.» Rather, the machines increased the sales -of sheet music.^[58] In any case, the +of sheet music.^[58] In any case, the innovators argued, the job of Congress was «to consider first the interest of [the public], whom they represent, and whose servants they are.» «All talk about `theft,'» the general counsel of the American Graphophone Company wrote, «is the merest claptrap, for there exists no property in ideas musical, literary or artistic, except as -defined by statute.»^[59] - +defined by statute.»^[59] +

Loven løste snart denne kampen i favør av både @@ -2347,7 +2347,7 @@ tillatelse til det. Girsham st betaling for den tillatelsen. Prisen for å publisere Grisham er dermed bestemt av Grisham og opphavsrettsloven sier at du ikke har tillatelse til å bruke Grishams verker med mindre du har tillatelse fra Grisham. - +

But the law governing recordings gives recording artists less. And thus, in effect, the law subsidizes the recording industry @@ -2359,7 +2359,7 @@ gets something of value for less than it otherwise would pay; the public gets access to a much wider range of musical creativity. Indeed, Congress was quite explicit about its reasons for granting this right. Its fear was the monopoly power of rights holders, and that that power would stifle -follow-on creativity.^[60] +follow-on creativity.^[60]

Mens musikkindustrien har vært ganske stille om dette i det siste, har de historisk vært høylytte tilhengere av den lovbestemte lisensen for @@ -2377,7 +2377,7 @@ recording rights before 1909 and the 1909 statute adopted the compulsory license as a deliberate anti-monopoly condition on the grant of these rights. They argue that the result has been an outpouring of recorded music, with the public being given lower prices, improved quality, and a greater -choice.^[61] +choice.^[61]

Ved å begrense rettighetene musikere hadde, ved å delvis røve deres kreative verk, fikk innspillingsprodusentene, og folket, fordeler. @@ -2385,7 +2385,7 @@ verk, fikk innspillingsprodusentene, og folket, fordeler. Radio kom også fra piratvirksomhet.

Når en radiostasjon spiller en plate på luften, så utgjør dette en -«offentlig fremføring» av komponistens verk.^[62] Som jeg beskrev over, gir loven komponisten (eller +«offentlig fremføring» av komponistens verk.^[62] Som jeg beskrev over, gir loven komponisten (eller opphavsrettsinnehaveren) en eksklusiv rett til offentlige fremføringer av hans verk. Radiostasjonen skylder dermed komponisten penger for denne fremføringe. @@ -2400,7 +2400,7 @@ Stones eller Lyle Lovett. Innspillingsartisten legger til verdi p komposisjonen fremført på radiostasjonen. Og hvis loven var fullstendig konsistent, så burde radiostasjonen også vært nødt til å betale innspillingsartisten for hans verk, på samme måten som den betaler -komponisten av musikken for hans verk. +komponisten av musikken for hans verk.

@@ -2423,49 +2423,49 @@ effektene fra salg av hennes CD-er. Den offentlige fremf innspilling er ikke en «beskyttet» rettighet. Radiostasjonen får dermed røve verdien av Madonnas arbeid uten å betale henne noen ting. -

Uten tvil kan en argumentere at, totalt sett, tjener innspillingsartistene på dette. I snitt er reklamen de får verdt mer enn enn fremføringsrettighetene de frasier seg. Kanskje. Men selv om det er slik, så gir loven vanligvis skaperen retten til å gjøre dette valget. Ved å gjøre valgen for ham eller henne, gir loven radiostasjonen rett til å ta noe uten å betale. -

4.4. Kabel-TV

Kabel-TV kom også fra en form for piratvirksomhet.

-When cable entrepreneurs first started wiring communities with cable -television in 1948, most refused to pay broadcasters for the content that -they echoed to their customers. Even when the cable companies started -selling access to television broadcasts, they refused to pay for what they -sold. Cable companies were thus Napsterizing broadcasters' content, but more -egregiously than anything Napster ever did— Napster never charged for -the content it enabled others to give away. -

+Da kabel-TV-gründere først begynte å koble opp fellesskap med kabel-TV i +1948, nektet de fleste å betale kringkasterne for innholdet som de sendte +videre til sine kunder. Selv da kabelselskapene begynte å selge tilgang til +TV-kringkastinger, nektet de å betale for det de solgte. Kabelselskapene +Napsteriserte dermed kringkasternes innhold, men grovere enn det Napster +noen gang gjorde—Napster tok aldri betalt for innholdet som det ble +mulig for andre å gi bort. +

Broadcasters and copyright owners were quick to attack this theft. Rosel Hyde, chairman of the FCC, viewed the practice as a kind of «unfair -and potentially destructive competition.»^[63] There may have been a «public interest» in spreading +and potentially destructive competition.»^[63] There may have been a «public interest» in spreading the reach of cable TV, but as Douglas Anello, general counsel to the National Association of Broadcasters, asked Senator Quentin Burdick during testimony, «Does public interest dictate that you use somebody else's -property?»^[64] As another +property?»^[64] As another broadcaster put it,

The extraordinary thing about the CATV business is that it is the only business I know of where the product that is being sold is not paid -for.^[65] +for.^[65]

Igjen, kravene til opphavsrettsinnehaverne virket rimelige nok:

Alt vi ber om er en veldig enkel ting, at folk som tar vår eiendom gratis betaler for den. Vi forsøker å stoppe piratvirksomhet og jeg kan ikke tenke på et svakere ord for å beskrive det. Jeg tror det er sterkere ord som -ville passe.^[66] -

+ville passe.^[66] +

Disse var «gratispassasjerer», sa presidenten Charlton Heston i Screen Actor's Guild, som «tok lønna fra -skuespillerne»^[67] +skuespillerne»^[67]

Men igjen, det er en annen side i debatten. Som assisterende justisminister Edwin Zimmerman sa det, @@ -2475,7 +2475,7 @@ protection at all, the problem here is whether copyright holders who are already compensated, who already have a monopoly, should be permitted to extend that monopoly. … The question here is how much compensation they should have and how far back they should carry their right to -compensation.^[68] +compensation.^[68]

^[51] +

^[51] Jeg er takknemlig til Peter DiMauro for å ha pekt meg i retning av denne ekstraordinære historien. Se også Siva Vaidhyanathan, Copyrights and Copywrongs, 87–93, som forteller detaljer om Edisons -«eventyr» med opphavsrett og patent. -
^[52] +«eventyr» med opphavsrett og patent. +
^[52] J. A. Aberdeen, Hollywood Renegades: The Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers (Cobblestone Entertainment, 2000) and @@ -2516,49 +2516,49 @@ imposed by Victor on phonographs, see Randal C. Picker, to the Broadcast Flag: Mechanisms of Consent and Refusal and the Propertization of Copyright» (September 2002), University of Chicago Law School, James M. Olin Program in Law and Economics, Working Paper -No. 159. -
^[53] +No. 159. +
^[53] Marc Wanamaker, «The First Studios,» The Silents Majority, arkivert på link #12. -
^[54] +
^[54] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright: Hearings on S. 6330 and H.R. 19853 Before the ( Joint) Committees on Patents, 59th Cong. 59, 1st sess. (1906) (statement of Senator Alfred B. Kittredge, of South Dakota, chairman), reprinted in Legislative History of the Copyright Act, E. Fulton Brylawski and Abe Goldman, eds. (South -Hackensack, N.J.: Rothman Reprints, 1976). -
^[55] +Hackensack, N.J.: Rothman Reprints, 1976). +
^[55] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright, 223 (uttalelse fra Nathan Burkan, advokat for the Music Publishers Association). -
^[56] +
^[56] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright, 226 (uttalelse fra Nathan Burkan, advokat for the Music Publishers Association). -
^[57] +
^[57] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright, 23 (uttalelse fra John Philip Sousa, komponist). -
^[58] +
^[58] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright, 283–84 (uttalelse fra Albert Walker, representant for the Auto-Music Perforating Company of New York). -
^[59] +
^[59] To Amend and Consolidate the Acts Respecting Copyright, 376 (forberedt innspill fra Philip Mauro, sjefspatentrådgiver for the American Graphophone Company Association). -
^[60] +
^[60] @@ -2568,12 +2568,12 @@ H.R. 11794 Before the ( Joint) Committee on Patents, 60th Cong., 1st sess., Legislative History of the 1909 Copyright Act, E. Fulton Brylawski and Abe Goldman, eds. (South Hackensack, N.J.: Rothman Reprints, 1976). -
^[61] +
^[61] Copyright Law Revision: Report to Accompany H.R. 2512, House Committee on the Judiciary, 90th Cong., 1st sess., House Document no. 83, (8 March -1967). I am grateful to Glenn Brown for drawing my attention to this report.
^[62] +1967). I am grateful to Glenn Brown for drawing my attention to this report.

^[62] See 17 United States Code, sections 106 and 110. At the beginning, record companies printed «Not Licensed for Radio @@ -2585,38 +2585,38 @@ Co. v. Whiteman, 114 F. 2d 86 (2nd Cir. 1940). See also Randal C. Picker, «From Edison to the Broadcast Flag: Mechanisms of Consent and Refusal and the Propertization of Copyright,» University of Chicago Law Review -70 (2003): 281. -

^[63] +70 (2003): 281. +

^[63] Copyright Law Revision—CATV: Hearing on S. 1006 Before the Subcommittee on Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 89th Cong., 2nd sess., 78 (1966) (statement of Rosel -H. Hyde, chairman of the Federal Communications Commission). -

^[64] +H. Hyde, chairman of the Federal Communications Commission). +

^[64] Copyright Law Revision—CATV, 116 (statement of Douglas A. Anello, general counsel of the National Association of Broadcasters). -

^[65] +

^[65] Copyright Law Revision—CATV, 126 (statement of Ernest W. Jennes, general counsel of the Association of Maximum Service Telecasters, Inc.). -

^[66] +

^[66] Copyright Law Revision—CATV, 169 (joint statement of Arthur B. Krim, president of United Artists Corp., and John Sinn, president of United Artists Television, Inc.). -

^[67] +

^[67] Copyright Law Revision—CATV, 209 (vitnemål fra Charlton Heston, -president i Screen Actors Guild). -

^[68] +president i Screen Actors Guild). +

^[68] Copyright Law Revision—CATV, 216 (uttalelse fra Edwin M. Zimmerman, -fungerende assisterende justisministeren). -

^[69] +fungerende assisterende justisministeren). +

^[69] See, for example, National Music Publisher's Association, The @@ -2640,12 +2640,12 @@ its nature a bit more. For the harm of this taking is significantly more ambiguous than outright copying, and the law should account for that ambiguity, as it has so often done in the past. -

5.1. Piratvirksomhet I

+
5.1. Piratvirksomhet I
All across the world, but especially in Asia and Eastern Europe, there are businesses that do nothing but take others people's copyrighted content, copy it, and sell it—all without the permission of a copyright owner. The recording industry estimates that it loses about $4.6 billion -every year to physical piracy^[70] (that +every year to physical piracy^[70] (that works out to one in three CDs sold worldwide). The MPAA estimates that it loses $3 billion annually worldwide to piracy.
@@ -2680,16 +2680,16 @@ nation, but we will not allow any other nation to have a similar childhood. If a country is to be treated as a sovereign, however, then its laws are its laws regardless of their source. The international law under which these nations live gives them some opportunities to escape the burden of -intellectual property law.^[71] In my view, +intellectual property law.^[71] In my view, more developing nations should take advantage of that opportunity, but when they don't, then their laws should be respected. And under the laws of these nations, this piracy is wrong. -
+
Alternatively, we could try to excuse this piracy by noting that in any case, it does no harm to the industry. The Chinese who get access to American CDs at 50 cents a copy are not people who would have bought those American CDs at $15 a copy. So no one really has any less money than they -otherwise would have had.^[72] +otherwise would have had.^[72]
This is often true (though I have friends who have purchased many thousands of pirated DVDs who certainly have enough money to pay for the content they @@ -2717,7 +2717,7 @@ we have a property system, and that system is properly balanced to the technology of a time, then it is wrong to take property without the permission of a property owner. That is exactly what «property» means. -
+
Finally, we could try to excuse this piracy with the argument that the piracy actually helps the copyright owner. When the Chinese «steal» Windows, that makes the Chinese dependent on @@ -2728,8 +2728,8 @@ than steal it. And hence over time, because that buying will benefit Microsoft, Microsoft benefits from the piracy. If instead of pirating Microsoft Windows, the Chinese used the free GNU/Linux operating system, then these Chinese users would not eventually be buying Microsoft. Without -piracy, then, Microsoft would lose. - +piracy, then, Microsoft would lose. +
This argument, too, is somewhat true. The addiction strategy is a good one. Many businesses practice it. Some thrive because of it. Law students, @@ -2747,8 +2747,8 @@ give its product away, as it did, for example, with Internet Explorer to fight Netscape. A property right means giving the property owner the right to say who gets access to what—at least ordinarily. And if the law properly balances the rights of the copyright owner with the rights of -access, then violating the law is still wrong. - +access, then violating the law is still wrong. +
@@ -2784,20 +2784,20 @@ us to find a way to protect artists while enabling this sharing to survive.
5.2. Piratvirksomhet II
The key to the «piracy» that the law aims to quash is a use -that «rob[s] the author of [his] profit.»^[73] This means we must determine whether and how much +that «rob[s] the author of [his] profit.»^[73] This means we must determine whether and how much p2p sharing harms before we know how strongly the law should seek to either prevent it or find an alternative to assure the author of his profit.
Peer-to-peer sharing was made famous by Napster. But the inventors of the Napster technology had not made any major technological innovations. Like every great advance in innovation on the Internet (and, arguably, off the -Internet as well^[74]), Shawn Fanning and +Internet as well^[74]), Shawn Fanning and crew had simply put together components that had been developed -independently. +independently.
The result was spontaneous combustion. Launched in July 1999, Napster amassed over 10 million users within nine months. After eighteen months, -there were close to 80 million registered users of the system.^[75] Courts quickly shut Napster down, but other +there were close to 80 million registered users of the system.^[75] Courts quickly shut Napster down, but other services emerged to take its place. (Kazaa is currently the most popular p2p service. It boasts over 100 million members.) These services' systems are different architecturally, though not very different in function: Each @@ -2808,10 +2808,10 @@ or your 20,000 best friends. According to a number of estimates, a huge proportion of Americans have tasted file-sharing technology. A study by Ipsos-Insight in September 2002 estimated that 60 million Americans had downloaded music—28 percent of -Americans older than 12.^[76] A survey by +Americans older than 12.^[76] A survey by the NPD group quoted in The New York Times estimated that 43 million citizens used file-sharing networks to exchange content in -May 2003.^[77] The vast majority of these +May 2003.^[77] The vast majority of these are not kids. Whatever the actual figure, a massive quantity of content is being «taken» on these networks. The ease and inexpensiveness of file-sharing networks have inspired millions to enjoy music in a way that @@ -2836,7 +2836,7 @@ these users simply take it. We might quibble about whether everyone who takes it would actually have bought it if sharing didn't make it available for free. Most probably wouldn't have, but clearly there are some who would. The latter are the target of category A: users who download instead -of purchasing. +of purchasing.
@@ -2874,7 +2874,7 @@ Hvordan balanserer disse ulike delingstypene?
Let's start with some simple but important points. From the perspective of the law, only type D sharing is clearly legal. From the perspective of -economics, only type A sharing is clearly harmful.^[78] Type B sharing is illegal but plainly +economics, only type A sharing is clearly harmful.^[78] Type B sharing is illegal but plainly beneficial. Type C sharing is illegal, yet good for society (since more exposure to music is good) and harmless to the artist (since the work is not otherwise available). So how sharing matters on balance is a hard @@ -2893,7 +2893,7 @@ to reckon. It has long been the recording industry's practice to blame technology for any drop in sales. The history of cassette recording is a good example. As a study by Cap Gemini Ernst & Young put it, «Rather than exploiting this new, popular technology, the labels -fought it.»^[79] The labels claimed +fought it.»^[79] The labels claimed that every album taped was an album unsold, and when record sales fell by 11.4 percent in 1981, the industry claimed that its point was proved. Technology was the problem, and banning or regulating technology was @@ -2904,7 +2904,7 @@ regulation, MTV was launched, and the industry had a record turnaround. «In the end,» Cap Gemini concludes, «the `crisis' … was not the fault of the tapers—who did not [stop after MTV came into being]—but had to a large extent resulted from -stagnation in musical innovation at the major labels.»^[80] +stagnation in musical innovation at the major labels.»^[80]
But just because the industry was wrong before does not mean it is wrong today. To evaluate the real threat that p2p sharing presents to the industry @@ -2929,17 +2929,17 @@ sharing? Odd as that might sound, the data about CD sales actually suggest it might be close.
In 2002, the RIAA reported that CD sales had fallen by 8.9 percent, from 882 -million to 803 million units; revenues fell 6.7 percent.^[81] This confirms a trend over the past few years. The +million to 803 million units; revenues fell 6.7 percent.^[81] This confirms a trend over the past few years. The RIAA blames Internet piracy for the trend, though there are many other causes that could account for this drop. SoundScan, for example, reports a more than 20 percent drop in the number of CDs released since 1999. That no doubt accounts for some of the decrease in sales. Rising prices could account for at least some of the loss. «From 1999 to 2001, the average -price of a CD rose 7.2 percent, from $13.04 to $14.19.»^[82] Competition from other forms of media could also +price of a CD rose 7.2 percent, from $13.04 to $14.19.»^[82] Competition from other forms of media could also account for some of the decline. As Jane Black of BusinessWeek notes, «The soundtrack to the film High Fidelity has a list price of $18.98. You could -get the whole movie [on DVD] for $19.99.»^[83] +get the whole movie [on DVD] for $19.99.»^[83]
@@ -2972,7 +2972,7 @@ industry. What value does it produce in addition to these costs? One benefit is type C sharing—making available content that is technically still under copyright but is no longer commercially available. This is not a small category of content. There are millions of tracks that -are no longer commercially available.^[84] +are no longer commercially available.^[84] And while it's conceivable that some of this content is not available because the artist producing the content doesn't want it to be made available, the vast majority of it is unavailable solely because the @@ -2981,14 +2981,14 @@ publisher or the distributor has decided it no longer makes economic sense
In real space—long before the Internet—the market had a simple response to this problem: used book and record stores. There are thousands -of used book and used record stores in America today.^[85] These stores buy content from owners, then sell the +of used book and used record stores in America today.^[85] These stores buy content from owners, then sell the content they buy. And under American copyright law, when they buy and sell this content, even if the content is still under copyright, the copyright owner doesn't get a dime. Used book and record stores are commercial entities; their owners make money from the content they sell; but as with cable companies before statutory licensing, they don't have to pay the copyright owner for the content they sell. -
+
Type C sharing, then, is very much like used book stores or used record stores. It is different, of course, because the person making the content available isn't making money from making the content available. It is also @@ -3055,7 +3055,7 @@ itself. When Napster told the district court that it had developed a technology to block the transfer of 99.4 percent of identified infringing material, the district court told counsel for Napster 99.4 percent was not good enough. Napster had to push the infringements «down to -zero.»^[86] +zero.»^[86]
If 99.4 percent is not good enough, then this is a war on file-sharing technologies, not a war on copyright infringement. There is no way to assure @@ -3074,7 +3074,7 @@ law adjusted, after some time, to the new technology. In this adjustment, the law sought to ensure the legitimate rights of creators while protecting innovation. Sometimes this has meant more rights for creators. Sometimes less. -
+
So, as we've seen, when «mechanical reproduction» threatened the interests of composers, Congress balanced the rights of composers against the interests of the recording industry. It granted rights to @@ -3107,7 +3107,7 @@ broadcasters' content for free, then it would have unfairly subsidized cable. Thus Congress chose a path that would assure compensation without giving the past (broadcasters) control over the future (cable). -
+
In the same year that Congress struck this balance, two major producers and distributors of film content filed a lawsuit against another technology, the video tape recorder (VTR, or as we refer to them today, VCRs) that Sony had @@ -3137,20 +3137,20 @@ MPAA president Jack Valenti became the studios' most vocal champion. Valenti called VCRs «tapeworms.» He warned, «When there are 20, 30, 40 million of these VCRs in the land, we will be invaded by millions of `tapeworms,' eating away at the very heart and essence of the most precious -asset the copyright owner has, his copyright.»^[87] «One does not have to be trained in +asset the copyright owner has, his copyright.»^[87] «One does not have to be trained in sophisticated marketing and creative judgment,» he told Congress, «to understand the devastation on the after-theater marketplace caused by the hundreds of millions of tapings that will adversely impact on the future of the creative community in this country. It is simply a question of -basic economics and plain common sense.»^[88] Indeed, as surveys would later show, percent of VCR owners had -movie libraries of ten videos or more^[89] +basic economics and plain common sense.»^[88] Indeed, as surveys would later show, percent of VCR owners had +movie libraries of ten videos or more^[89] — a use the Court would later hold was not «fair.» By «allowing VCR owners to copy freely by the means of an exemption from copyright infringementwithout creating a mechanism to compensate copyrightowners,» Valenti testified, Congress would «take from the owners the very essence of their property: the exclusive right to control who may use their work, that is, who may copy it and thereby profit -from its reproduction.»^[90] +from its reproduction.»^[90]
It took eight years for this case to be resolved by the Supreme Court. In the interim, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, which includes Hollywood in @@ -3161,7 +3161,7 @@ machines. Under the Ninth Circuit's rule, this totally familiar technology—which Jack Valenti had called «the Boston Strangler of the American film industry» (worse yet, it was a Japanese Boston Strangler of the American film -industry)—was an illegal technology.^[91] +industry)—was an illegal technology.^[91]
But the Supreme Court reversed the decision of the Ninth Circuit. And in @@ -3173,7 +3173,7 @@ Congress when major technological innovations alter the market for copyrighted materials. Congress has the constitutional authority and the institutional ability to accommodate fully the varied permutations of competing interests that are inevitably implicated by such new -technology.^[92] +technology.^[92]
Congress was asked to respond to the Supreme Court's decision. But as with the plea of recording artists about radio broadcasts, Congress ignored the @@ -3182,7 +3182,7 @@ request. Congress was convinced that American film got enough, this pattern is clear:
Tilfelle Hvems verdi ble «røvet» Responsen til domstolene Responsen til Kongressen
Innspillinger Komponister Ingen beskyttelse Statutory license
Radio Innspillingsartister N/A Ingenting
Kabel-TV Kringkastere Ingen beskyttelse Statutory license
VCR Filmskapere Ingen beskyttelse Ingenting
In each case throughout our history, a new technology changed the way -content was distributed.^[93] In each case, +content was distributed.^[93] In each case, throughout our history, that change meant that someone got a «free ride» on someone else's work.
@@ -3210,7 +3210,7 @@ every cover band have to hire a lawyer to get permission to record a song? We could answer yes to each of these questions, but our tradition has answered no. In our tradition, as the Supreme Court has stated, copyright «has never accorded the copyright owner complete control over all -possible uses of his work.»^[94] +possible uses of his work.»^[94] Instead, the particular uses that the law regulates have been defined by balancing the good that comes from granting an exclusive right against the burdens such an exclusive right creates. And this balancing has historically @@ -3237,7 +3237,7 @@ efficient in moving content across a widely diverse network. Left to develop, they could make the network vastly more efficient. Yet these «potential public benefits,» as John Schwartz writes in The New York Times, «could be delayed in the -P2P fight.»^[95] Yet when anyone +P2P fight.»^[95] Yet when anyone begins to talk about «balance,» the copyright warriors raise a different argument. «All this hand waving about balance and incentives,» they say, «misses a fundamental point. Our @@ -3251,7 +3251,7 @@ good use for the car before we arrest him? «Det er vår eiendom,» insisterer krigerne. «og den bør være beskyttet på samme måte som all annen eiendom er beskyttet.» -

^[70] +

^[70] See IFPI (International Federation of the Phonographic Industry), @@ -3259,7 +3259,7 @@ See IFPI (International Federation of the Phonographic Industry), July 2003, available at link #14. See also Ben Hunt, «Companies Warned on Music Piracy Risk,» Financial Times, 14 February 2003, 11. -
^[71] +
^[71] See Peter Drahos with John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? (New York: The New @@ -3274,8 +3274,8 @@ permit governments to use patents for public, noncommercial uses without first obtaining the patent holder's permission. Developing nations may be able to use this to gain the benefits of foreign patents at lower prices. This is a promising strategy for developing nations within the TRIPS -framework. -
^[72] +framework. +
^[72] For an analysis of the economic impact of copying technology, see Stan Liebowitz, Rethinking the Network Economy (New York: @@ -3283,13 +3283,13 @@ Amacom, 2002), 144–90. piracy on the copyright holder's ability to appropriate the value of the work will be negligible. One obvious instance is the case where the individual engaging in pirating would not have purchased an original even if -pirating were not an option.» Ibid., 149. -
^[73] +pirating were not an option.» Ibid., 149. +
^[73] Bach v. Longman, 98 Eng. Rep. 1274 (1777). -
^[74] +
^[74] See Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma: The Revolutionary National Bestseller That Changed the Way We Do @@ -3299,8 +3299,8 @@ frequently unable to come up with the most creative, paradigm-shifting uses for their own products. This job usually falls to outside innovators, who reassemble existing technology in inventive ways. For a discussion of Christensen's ideas, see Lawrence Lessig, Future, -89–92, 139. -
^[75] +89–92, 139. +
^[75] See Carolyn Lochhead, «Silicon Valley Dream, Hollywood @@ -3312,7 +3312,7 @@ Chronicle, 23 May 2003, C1; Call,» Economist, 24 June 2000, 23; John Naughton, «Hollywood at War with the Internet» (London) Times, 26 July 2002, 18. -
^[76] +

^[76] @@ -3321,16 +3321,16 @@ Distribution (September 2002), reporting that 28 percent of Americans aged twelve and older have downloaded music off of the Internet and 30 percent have listened to digital music files stored on their computers. -

^[77] +

^[77] Amy Harmon, «Industry Offers a Carrot in Online Music Fight,» New York Times, 6 June 2003, A1. -

^[78] +

^[78] Se Liebowitz, Rethinking the Network Economy, -148–49. -

^[79] +148–49. +

^[79] See Cap Gemini Ernst & Young, Technology Evolution and the @@ -3344,11 +3344,11 @@ percent of consumers older than ten had taped music to a cassette format. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Copyright and Home Copying: Technology Challenges the Law, OTA-CIT-422 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing -Office, October 1989), 145–56.

^[80] +Office, October 1989), 145–56.

^[80] U.S. Congress, Copyright and Home Copying, 4. -

^[81] +

^[81] See Recording Industry Association of America, 2002 Yearend @@ -3363,14 +3363,14 @@ down 14 percent, from $14.6 billion in to $12.6 billion last year (based on U.S. dollar value of shipments). The music industry worldwide has gone from a $39 billion industry in 2000 down to a $32 billion industry in 2002 (based on U.S. dollar value of shipments).» -

^[82] +

^[82] Jane Black, «Big Music's Broken Record», BusinessWeek online, -13. februar 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #17. -

^[83] +13. februar 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #17. +

^[83] ibid. -

^[84] +

^[84] By one estimate, 75 percent of the music released by the major labels is no @@ -3378,7 +3378,7 @@ longer in print. See Online Entertainment and Copyright Law—Coming Soon to a Digital Device Near You: Hearing Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 107th Cong., 1st sess. (3 April 2001) (prepared statement of the Future of Music Coalition), available at link #18. -

^[85] +

^[85] While there are not good estimates of the number of used record stores in @@ -3389,7 +3389,7 @@ available at . Used records accounted for $260 million in sales in 2002. See National Association of Recording Merchandisers, «2002 Annual Survey Results,» available at link #20. -

^[86] +

^[86] See Transcript of Proceedings, In Re: Napster Copyright Litigation at 34- 35 @@ -3398,38 +3398,38 @@ See Transcript of Proceedings, In Re: Napster Copyright Litigation at 34- 35 of the litigation and its toll on Napster, see Joseph Menn, All the Rave: The Rise and Fall of Shawn Fanning's Napster (New York: Crown Business, 2003), 269–82. -

^[87] +

^[87] Copyright Infringements (Audio and Video Recorders): Hearing on S. 1758 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 97th Cong., 1st and 2nd sess., 459 (1982) (testimony of Jack Valenti, president, Motion Picture Association of America, Inc.). -

^[88] +

^[88] Copyright Infringements (Audio and Video Recorders), 475. -

^[89] +

^[89] Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Sony Corp. of America, 480 F. Supp. 429, (C.D. Cal., 1979). -

^[90] +

^[90] Copyright Infringements (Audio and Video Recorders), 485 (testimony of Jack Valenti). -

^[91] +

^[91] Universal City Studios, Inc. mot Sony Corp. of America, 659 F. 2d 963 (9th Cir. 1981). -

^[92] +

^[92] Sony Corp. of America mot Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 431 (1984). -

^[93] +

^[93] These are the most important instances in our history, but there are other cases as well. The technology of digital audio tape (DAT), for example, was @@ -3441,13 +3441,13 @@ technology of DAT. See Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 (Title 17 of the eliminate the opportunity for free riding in the sense I've described. See Lessig, Future, 71. See also Picker, «From Edison to the Broadcast Flag,» University of Chicago Law -Review 70 (2003): 293–96. -

^[94] +Review 70 (2003): 293–96. +

^[94] Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, (1984). -

^[95] +

^[95] John Schwartz, «New Economy: The Attack on Peer-to-Peer Software @@ -3482,7 +3482,7 @@ ut hvis jeg gjorde det hver dag, og spesielt s Istedet, som Thomas Jefferson sa (og det er spesielt sant når jeg kopierer hvordan noen andre kler seg), «Den som mottar en idé fra meg, får selv information uten å ta noe fra me, på samme måte som den som tenner sitt lys -från min veike får lys utan å forlate meg i mørket».^[96] +från min veike får lys utan å forlate meg i mørket».^[96]

Unntakene til fri bruk er ideer og uttrykk innenfor dekningsområdet til loven om patent og opphavsrett, og noen få andre områder som jeg ikke vil @@ -3492,7 +3492,7 @@ min tilatelse: Loven gj Men hvordan, og i hvilken utstrekning, og i hvilken form—detaljene, med andre ord—betyr noe. For å få en god forståelse om hvordan denne praksis om å gjøre det immaterielle om til eiendom vokste frem, trenger vi å -plassere denne «eiendom» i sin rette sammenheng.^[97] +plassere denne «eiendom» i sin rette sammenheng.^[97]

Min strategi for å gjøre detet er den samme som min strategi i den foregående del. Jeg tilbyr fire historier som bidrar til å plassere @@ -3502,13 +3502,13 @@ Etter disse historiene vil betydningen til dette sanne utsagnet—«opphavsrettsmateriale er eiendom»— bli litt mer klart, og dets implikasjoner vil bli avslørt som ganske forskjellig fra implikasjonene som opphavsrettskrigerne vil at vi skal forstå. -

^[96] +

^[96] Brev fra Thomas Jefferson til Isaac McPherson (13. august 1813) i The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 6 (Andrew A. Lipscomb and Albert Ellery Bergh, eds., 1903), 330, 333–34. -
^[97] +
^[97] Slik de juridiske realistene lærte bort amerikansk lov, var alle @@ -3519,7 +3519,7 @@ immateriell, selv om objektet som det er (metafysisk) knyttet til er materielt. Se Adam Mossoff, «What Is Property? Putting the Pieces Back Together,» Arizona Law Review 45 (2003): 373, 429 n. 241. -
Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
+

Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

William Shakespeare skrev Romeo og Julie i 1595. Skuespillet ble først utgitt i 1597. Det var det ellevte store skuespillet Shakespeare hadde skrevet. Han fortsatte å skrive skuespill helt @@ -3532,9 +3532,9 @@ Shakespeare er s I 1774, nesten 180 år etter at Romeo og Julie ble skrevet, mente mange at «opphavsretten» kun tilhørte én eneste -utgiver i London, John Tonson. ^[98] Tonson +utgiver i London, John Tonson. ^[98] Tonson var den mest fremstående av en liten gruppe utgivere kalt «the -Conger»^[99], som kontrollerte +Conger»^[99], som kontrollerte boksalget i England gjennom hele 1700-tallet. The Conger hevdet at de hadde en evigvarende rett over «kopier» av bøker de hadde fått av forfatterne. Denne evigvarende retten innebar at ingen andre kunne publisere @@ -3547,7 +3547,7 @@ det britiske parlamentet vedtok den f «Statute of Anne» og sa at alle publiserte verk skulle være beskyttet i fjorten år, en periode som kunne fornyes én gang dersom forfatteren ennå levde, og at alle verk publisert i eller før 1710 skulle ha -en ekstraperiode på 22 tillegsår.^[100] På +en ekstraperiode på 22 tillegsår.^[100] På grunn av denne loven, så skulle Rome og Julie ha falt i det fri i 1731. Hvordan kunne da Tonson fortsatt ha kontroll over verket i 1774? @@ -3559,7 +3559,7 @@ lovgivning om opphavsrett. Den siste loven som regulerte utgivere var lisensieringsloven av 1662, utløpt i 1695. At loven ga utgiverne monopol over publiseringen, noe som gjorde det enklere for kronen å kontrollere hva ble publisert. Men etter at det har utløpt, var det ingen positiv lov som sa -at utgiverne hadde en eksklusiv rett til å trykke bøker. +at utgiverne hadde en eksklusiv rett til å trykke bøker.
At det ikke fantes noen positiv lov, betydde ikke at det ikke fantes noen lov. Den anglo-amerikanske juridiske tradisjon ser både @@ -3618,7 +3618,7 @@ verk kunne brukes. Idag inkluderer retten samling av restriksjoner på andres frihet: den gir forfatteren eksklusiv rett til å kopiere, eksklusiv rett til å distribuere, eksklusiv rett til å fremføre, og så videre. -
+
Så selv om f. eks. opphavsretten til Shakespeares verker var evigvarende, betydde det under den opprinnelige betydningen av begrepet at ingen kunne trykke Shakespeares arbeid uten tillatelse fra Shakespeares arvinger. Den @@ -3626,7 +3626,7 @@ ville ikke ha kontrollert noe mer, for eksempel om hvordan verket kunne fremføres, om verket kunne oversettes eller om Kenneth Branagh ville hatt lov til å lage filmer. «Kopi-retten» var bare en eksklusiv rett til å trykke--ikke noe mindre, selvfølgelig, men heller ikke mer. -
+
Selv dnne begrensede retten ble møtt med skepsis av britene. De hadde hatt en lang og stygg erfaring med «eksklusive rettigheter», spesielt «enerett» gitt av kronen. Engelskmennene hadde @@ -3655,7 +3655,7 @@ undertrykkelse, de solgte Englands frihet mot monopolskinntekt. Men monopolistene ble kvast kritisert: Milton beskrev dem som «gamle patentholdere og monopolister i bokhandlerkunsten»; de var «menn som derfor ikke hadde et ærlig arbeide hvor utdanning er -nødvendig.»^[101] +nødvendig.»^[101]
Mange trodde at den makten bokhandlerne utøvde over spredning av kunnskap, var til skade for selve spredningen, men på dette tidspunktet viste @@ -3687,7 +3687,7 @@ utvidelser om igjen og om igjen, s lovforslaget blir vedtatt, vil effekten være: at et evig monopol blir skapt, et stort nederlag for handelen, et angrep mot kunnskapen, ingen fordel for forfatterne, men en stor avgift for folket; og alt dette kun for å øke -bokhandlernes personlige rikdom.^[102] +bokhandlernes personlige rikdom.^[102]

Etter å ha mislyktes i Parlamentet gikk utgiverne til rettssalen i en rekke saker. Deres argument var enkelt og direkte: «Statute of Anne» @@ -3705,26 +3705,26 @@ var den eneste m Dette var et godt argument, og hadde støtte fra flere av den tidens ledende jurister. Det viste også en ekstraordinær chutzpah. Inntail da, som jusprofessor Raymond Pattetson har sagt, «var utgiverne … like -bekymret for forfatterne som en gjeter for sine lam.»^[103] Bokselgerne brydde seg ikke det spor om +bekymret for forfatterne som en gjeter for sine lam.»^[103] Bokselgerne brydde seg ikke det spor om forfatternes rettigheter. Deres bekymring var den monopolske inntekten forfatterens verk ga.

Men bokhandlernes argument ble ikke godtatt uten kamp. Helten fra denne -kampen var den skotske bokselgeren Alexander Donaldson.^[104] +kampen var den skotske bokselgeren Alexander Donaldson.^[104]

Donaldson var en fremmed for Londons «the Conger». Han startet in karriere i Edinburgh i 1750. Hans forretningsidé var billige kopier av standardverk falt i det fri, ihvertfall fri ifølge «Statute of -Anne».^[105] Donaldsons forlag vokste +Anne».^[105] Donaldsons forlag vokste og ble «et sentrum for litterære skotter.» «Blant dem,» skriver professor Mark Rose, var «den unge James Boswell som, sammen med sin venn Andrew Erskine, publiserte en hel antologi av -skotsk samtidspoesi sammen med Donaldson.»^[106] +skotsk samtidspoesi sammen med Donaldson.»^[106]

Da Londons bokselgere prøvde å få stengt Donaldsons butikk i Skottland, så flyttet han butikken til London. Her solgte han billige utgaver av «de mest populære, engelske bøker, i kamp mot sedvanerettens rett til litterær -eiendom.» ^[107] Bøkene hans var +eiendom.» ^[107] Bøkene hans var mellom 30% og 50% billigere enn «the Conger»s, og han baserte sin rett til denne konkurransen på at bøkene, takket være «Statute of Anne», var falt i det fri. @@ -3733,13 +3733,13 @@ Londons bokselgere begynte straks Donaldson. Flere tiltak var vellykkede, den viktigste var den tidlig seieren i kampen mellom Millar og Taylor. -

+
Millar var en bokhandler som i 1729 hadde kjøpt opp rettighetene til James Thomsons dikt «The Seasons». Millar hadde da full beskyttelse gjennom «Statute of Anne», men etter at denne beskyttelsen var uløpt, begynte Robert Taylor å trykke et konkurrerende bind. Millar gikk til sak, og hevdet han hadde en evig rett gjennom sedvaneretten, uansett hva -«Statute of Anne» sa.^[108] +«Statute of Anne» sa.^[108]
Til moderne juristers forbløffelse, var en av, ikke bare datidens, men en av de største dommere i engelsk historie, Lord Mansfield, enig med @@ -3760,13 +3760,13 @@ gjennom perioden måtte være så kort at kulturen ble utsatt for konkurranse innen rimelig tid. Storbritannia skulle vokse fra den kontrollerte kulturen under kronen, inn i en fri og åpen kultur. -
+
Kampen for å forsvare «Statute of Anne»s begrensninger sluttet uansett ikke der, for nå kommer Donaldson. -
+
Millar døde kort tid etter sin seier. Boet hans solgte rettighetene over Thomsons dikt til et syndikat av utgivere, deriblant Thomas -Beckett.^[109] Da ga Donaldson ut en +Beckett.^[109] Da ga Donaldson ut en uautorisert utgave av Thomsons verk. Etter avgjørelsen i Millar-saken, gikk Beckett til sak mot Donaldson. Donaldson tok saken inn for Overhuset, som da fungerte som en @@ -3803,7 +3803,7 @@ en allmenn oppfatning om at kopiretten var evigvarende. Men etter 1774 ble Public Domain født.For første gang i angloamerikansk historie var den lovlige beskyttelsen av et verk utgått, og de største verk i engelsk historie - inkludert Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Johnson og Bunyan - var -frie. +frie.
Vi kan knapt forestille oss det, men denne avgjørelsen fra Overhuset fyrte opp under en svært populær og politisk reaksjon. I Skottland, hvor de fleste @@ -3812,7 +3812,7 @@ piratugiverne hadde holdt til, ble avgj noen gang fått slik oppmerksomhet fra folket, og ingen sak som har blitt prøvet i Overhuset har interessert så mange enkeltmennesker.» «Stor glede i Edinburgh etter seieren over litterær eiendom: bål og -*illuminations*.»^[110] +*illuminations*.»^[110]
I London, ihvertfall blant utgiverne, var reaksjonen like sterk, men i motsatt retning. Morning Chronicle skrev: @@ -3822,7 +3822,7 @@ er blitt redusert til ingenting. Bokselgerne i London og Westminster, mange av dem har solgt hus og eiendom for å kjøpe kopirettigheter, er med ett ruinerte, og mange som gjennom mange år har opparbeidet kompetanse for å brødfø -familien, sitter nå uten en shilling til sine.^[111] +familien, sitter nå uten en shilling til sine.^[111]

@@ -3847,35 +3847,34 @@ og hvor deres tilgang til den ble styrt av noen f Til sist, dette var en verden hvor Parlamentet var antimonopolistisk, og holdt stand mot utgivernes krav. I en verden hvor parlamentet er lett å påvirke, vil den frie kultur være mindre beskyttet. -

^[98] - +

^[98] -Jacob Tonson er vanligvis husket for sin omgang med 1700-tallets litterære -storheter, spesielt John Dryden, og for hans kjekke«ferdige + Jacob Tonson er vanligvis husket for sin omgang med 1700-tallets +litterære storheter, spesielt John Dryden, og for hans kjekke«ferdige versjoner» av klassiske verk. I tillegg til Romeo og Julie, utga han en utrolig rekke liste av verk som ennå er hjertet av den engelske kanon, inkludert de samlede verk av Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, John Milton, og John Dryden. Se Keith Walker: «Jacob Tonson, Bookseller», American Scholar 61:3 (1992): 424-31. -
^[99] +
^[99] Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968), 151–52. -
^[100] +
^[100] Som Siva Vaidhyanathan så pent argumenterer, er det feilaktige å kalle dette en «opphavsrettslov». Se Vaidhyanathan, Copyrights -and Copywrongs, 40. -

^[101] +and Copywrongs, 40. +

^[101] Philip Wittenberg, The Protection and Marketing of Literary Property (New York: J. Messner, Inc., 1937), 31. -

^[102] +

^[102] A Letter to a Member of Parliament concerning the Bill now depending in the @@ -3885,45 +3884,45 @@ Vesting the Copies of Printed Books in the Authors or Purchasers of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned (London, 1735), in Brief Amici Curiae of Tyler T. Ochoa et al., 8, Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003) (No. 01-618). -

^[103] +

^[103] Lyman Ray Patterson, «Free Speech, Copyright, and Fair Use», Vanderbilt Law Review 40 (1987): 28. For en fantastisk overbevisende fortelling, se Vaidhyanathan, 37–48. - -

^[104] + +

^[104] For a compelling account, see David Saunders, Authorship and Copyright (London: Routledge, 1992), 62–69. -

^[105] +

^[105] Mark Rose, Authors and Owners (Cambridge: Harvard -University Press, 1993), 92. -

^[106] +University Press, 1993), 92. +

^[106] Ibid., 93. -

^[107] +

^[107] Lyman Ray Patterson, Copyright in Historical Perspective, 167 (quoting Borwell). -

^[108] +

^[108] Howard B. Abrams, «The Historic Foundation of American Copyright Law: Exploding the Myth of Common Law Copyright», Wayne Law Review 29 (1983): 1152. -

^[109] +

^[109] Ibid., 1156. -

^[110] +

^[110] Rose, 97. -

^[111] +

^[111] ibid. @@ -3941,7 +3940,7 @@ I 1990 arbeidet Else med en dokumentar om Wagners Ring Cycle. Fokuset var p *stagehands* på San Francisco Opera. Stagehands er spesielt morsomt og fargerikt innslag i en opera. I løpet av forestillingen oppholder de seg blant publikum og på lysloftet. De er en perfekt kontrast til kunsten på -scenen. +scenen.

Under en forestilling, filmet Else noen stagehands som spilte *checkers*. I @@ -3962,13 +3961,13 @@ for fire og et halvt sekund på et lite fjernsyn, bakerst i et hjørne av rommet. Hvordan kunne det skade? Groening var glad for å få ha det med i filmen, men han ba Else om å kontakte Gracie Films, firmaet som produserer -programmet. +programmet.

Gracie Films sa også at det var greit, men de, slik som Groening, ønsket å være forsiktige, og ba Else om å kontakte Fox, konsernet som eide Gracie. Og Else kontaktet Fox og forklarte situasjonen; at det var snakk om et klipp i hjørnet i bakgrunnen i ett rom i filmen. Matt Groening hadde allerede gitt -sin tillatelse, sa Else. Han ville bare få det avklart med Fox. +sin tillatelse, sa Else. Han ville bare få det avklart med Fox.

Deretter, fortalte Else: «skjedde to ting. Først oppdaget vi … at Matt Groening ikke eide sitt eget verk — ihvertfall at noen [hos @@ -3997,7 +3996,7 @@ Men Else hadde ikke penger til denne delen av virkeligheten, lå langt utenfor hans budsjett. Like før dokumentaren skulle slippes, redigerte Else inn et annet klipp på fjernsynet, et klipp fra en av hans andre filmer The Day After -Trinity fra ti år tidligere. +Trinity fra ti år tidligere.

Det er ingen tvil om at noen, enten det er er Matt Groening eller Fox, eier rettighetene til The Simpsons. Rettighetene er deres @@ -4018,7 +4017,7 @@ det) kreve hvor mye han vil; $10ellr $1 000 000. Det er hans rett if loven.

Men når jurister hører denne historien om Jon Else og Fox, så er deres -første tanke «rimelig bruk».^[112] Elses bruk av 4,5 sekunder med et indirekte klipp av en +første tanke «rimelig bruk».^[112] Elses bruk av 4,5 sekunder med et indirekte klipp av en Simpsons-episode er et klart eksempel på «rimelig bruk» av The Simpsons— og «rimelig bruk» krever ingen tillatelse fra noen. @@ -4042,7 +4041,7 @@ F «visual cue sheet» med alle kilder og lisens-status på alle scener i filmen. De har et smalt syn på «fair use», og å påstå at noe er nettopp det kan forsinke, og i verste fall stoppe, prosessen. -

Jeg skulle nok aldri ha bedt om Matt Groenings tillatelse. Men jeg visste (ihvertfall fra rykter) at Fox tidligere hadde brukt å jakte på og stoppe @@ -4081,7 +4080,7 @@ Dette eksempelet viser hvor langt denne loven har kommet fra sine syttenhundretalls røtter. Loven som skulle beskytte utgiverne mot urettferdig piratkonkurranse, hadde utviklet seg til et sverd som slo ned på _all_ bruk, transformativ* eller ikke. -

^[112] +

^[112] Ønsker du å lese en flott redegjørelse om hvordan dette er «fair @@ -4089,7 +4088,7 @@ use A. Posner og William F. Patry, «Fair Use and Statutory Reform in the Wake of Eldred » (utkast arkivert hos forfatteren), University of Chicago Law School, 5. august 2003. -

Kapittel åtte: Omformere

In 1993, Alex Alben was a lawyer working at Starwave, Inc. Starwave was an innovative company founded by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen to develop digital entertainment. Long before the Internet became popular, Starwave @@ -4130,7 +4129,7 @@ Alben brought the idea to Michael Slade, the CEO of Starwave. Slade asked, Alben replied, «Well, we're going to have to clear rights from everyone who appears in these films, and the music and everything else that we want to use in these film clips.» Slade said, «Great! Go for -it.»^[113] +it.»^[113]

The problem was that neither Alben nor Slade had any idea what clearing those rights would mean. Every actor in each of the films could have a claim @@ -4159,7 +4158,7 @@ hard to identify because in Eastwood movies you can't tell who's the guy crashing through the glass—is it the actor or is it the stuntman? And then we just, we put together a team, my assistant and some others, and we just started calling people. -

Some actors were glad to help—Donald Sutherland, for example, followed up himself to be sure that the rights had been cleared. Others were dumbfounded at their good fortune. Alben would ask, «Hey, can I pay @@ -4189,12 +4188,12 @@ systematically and cleared the rights. And no doubt, the product itself was exceptionally good. Eastwood loved it, and it sold very well. -

But I pressed Alben about how weird it seems that it would have to take a year's work simply to clear rights. No doubt Alben had done this efficiently, but as Peter Drucker has famously quipped, «There is nothing so useless as doing efficiently that which should not be done at -all.»^[114] Did it make sense, I asked +all.»^[114] Did it make sense, I asked Alben, that this is the way a new work has to be made?

For, as he acknowledged, «very few … have the time and @@ -4239,7 +4238,7 @@ richest investors in the world. He therefore had authority and access that the average Web designer would not have. So if it took him a year, how long would it take someone else? And how much creativity is never made just because the costs of clearing the rights are so high? -

These costs are the burdens of a kind of regulation. Put on a Republican hat for a moment, and get angry for a bit. The government defines the scope of these rights, and the scope defined determines how much it's going to cost @@ -4249,7 +4248,7 @@ Los Angeles to San Francisco.) These rights might well have once made sense; but as circumstances change, they make no sense at all. Or at least, a well-trained, regulationminimizing Republican should look at the rights and ask, «Does this still make sense?» -

I've seen the flash of recognition when people get this point, but only a few times. The first was at a conference of federal judges in California. @@ -4262,14 +4261,14 @@ Videoen var en glimrende sammenstilling av filmer fra hver periode i det tjuende århundret, rammet inn rundt idéen om en episode i TV-serien 60 Minutes. Utførelsen var perfekt, ned til seksti minutter stoppeklokken. Dommerne elsket enhver minutt av den. -

Da lysene kom på, kikket jeg over til min medpaneldeltager, David Nimmer, kanskje den ledende opphavsrettakademiker og utøver i nasjonen. Han hadde en forbauset uttrykk i ansiktet sitt, mens han tittet ut over rommet med over 250 godt underholdte dommere. Med en en illevarslende tone, begynte han sin tale med et spørsmål: «Vet dere hvor mange føderale lover som nettopp brutt i dette rommet?» -

For of course, the two brilliantly talented creators who made this film hadn't done what Alben did. They hadn't spent a year clearing the rights to these clips; technically, what they had done violated the law. Of course, @@ -4288,7 +4287,7 @@ technology. Anyone building a presentation knows the extraordinary freedom that the cut and paste architecture of the Internet created—in a second you can find just about any image you want; in another second, you can have it planted in your presentation. -

But presentations are just a tiny beginning. Using the Internet and its archives, musicians are able to string together mixes of sound never before @@ -4361,14 +4360,14 @@ use: You either pay a lawyer to defend your fair use rights or pay a lawyer to track down permissions so you don't have to rely upon fair use rights. Either way, the creative process is a process of paying lawyers—again a privilege, or perhaps a curse, reserved for the few. -

^[113] +

^[113] Technically, the rights that Alben had to clear were mainly those of publicity—rights an artist has to control the commercial exploitation of his image. But these rights, too, burden «Rip, Mix, Burn» -creativity, as this chapter evinces. - -

^[114] +creativity, as this chapter evinces. + +

^[114] U.S. Department of Commerce Office of Acquisition Management, @@ -4406,12 +4405,12 @@ way for you to know whether the content you are reading is the same as the content you read before. The page may seem the same, but the content could easily be different. The Internet is Orwell's library—constantly updated, without any reliable memory. -

Until the Way Back Machine, at least. With the Way Back Machine, and the Internet Archive underlying it, you can see what the Internet was. You have the power to see what you remember. More importantly, perhaps, you also have the power to find what you don't remember and what others might prefer you -forget.^[115] +forget.^[115]

We take it for granted that we can go back to see what we remember reading. Think about newspapers. If you wanted to study the reaction of your @@ -4447,7 +4446,7 @@ a series of projects designed to archive human knowledge. The Internet Archive was just the first of the projects of this Andrew Carnegie of the Internet. By December of 2002, the archive had over 10 billion pages, and it was growing at about a billion pages a month. -

The Way Back Machine is the largest archive of human knowledge in human history. At the end of 2002, it held «two hundred and thirty terabytes of material»—and was «ten times larger than the Library @@ -4463,7 +4462,7 @@ very low fee. unavailable,» Kahle told me. «If you were Barbara Walters you could get access to [the archives], but if you are just a graduate student?» As Kahle put it, -

+
Do you remember when Dan Quayle was interacting with Murphy Brown? Remember that back and forth surreal experience of a politician interacting with a @@ -4493,7 +4492,7 @@ deposits—for an unlimited time at no cost. In 1915 alone, there were more than 5,475 films deposited and «borrowed back.» Thus, when the copyrights to films expire, there is no copy held by any library. The copy exists—if it exists at all—in the library archive of the -film company.^[116] +film company.^[116]
The same is generally true about television. Television broadcasts were originally not copyrighted—there was no way to capture the broadcasts, @@ -4513,7 +4512,7 @@ working with dozens of others, selected twenty stations from around the world and, beginning October 11, 2001, made their coverage during the week of September 11 available free on-line. Anyone could see how news reports from around the world covered the events of that day. -
+
Kahle had the same idea with film. Working with Rick Prelinger, whose archive of film includes close to 45,000 «ephemeral films» (meaning films other than Hollywood movies, films that were never @@ -4559,7 +4558,7 @@ about our history. In this second life, the content can continue to inform even if that information is no longer sold.
The same has always been true about books. A book goes out of print very -quickly (the average today is after about a year^[117]). After it is out of print, it can be sold in used book stores +quickly (the average today is after about a year^[117]). After it is out of print, it can be sold in used book stores without the copyright owner getting anything and stored in libraries, where many get to read the book, also for free. Used book stores and libraries are thus the second life of a book. That second life is extremely important to @@ -4594,7 +4593,7 @@ The scale of this potential archive is something we've never imagined before. The Brewster Kahles of our history have dreamed about it; but we are for the first time at a point where that dream is possible. As Kahle describes, -
+
It looks like there's about two to three million recordings of music. Ever. There are about a hundred thousand theatrical releases of movies, … and about one to two million movies [distributed] during the @@ -4627,15 +4626,15 @@ these collected in these digital spaces is also someone's «property.» And the law of property restricts the freedoms that Kahle and others would exercise. -

^[115] +

^[115] - -The temptations remain, however. Brewster Kahle reports that the White House -changes its own press releases without notice. A May 13, 2003, press release -stated, «Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended.» That was later -changed, without notice, to «Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have -Ended.» E-mail from Brewster Kahle, 1 December 2003. -
^[116] + The temptations remain, +however. Brewster Kahle reports that the White House changes its own press +releases without notice. A May 13, 2003, press release stated, «Combat +Operations in Iraq Have Ended.» That was later changed, without +notice, to «Major Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended.» E-mail +from Brewster Kahle, 1 December 2003. +
^[116] Doug Herrick, «Toward a National Film Collection: Motion Pictures at @@ -4643,7 +4642,7 @@ the Library of Congress, Quarterly 13 nos. 2–3 (1980): 5; Anthony Slide, Nitrate Won't Wait: A History of Film Preservation in the United States ( Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1992), 36. -
^[117] +
^[117] Dave Barns, «Fledgling Career in Antique Books: Woodstock Landlord, @@ -4660,7 +4659,7 @@ administration—literally. The famous picture of Johnson's swearing-in on Air Force One after the assassination of President Kennedy has Valenti in the background. In his almost forty years of running the MPAA, Valenti has established himself as perhaps the most prominent and effective lobbyist in -Washington. +Washington.
The MPAA is the American branch of the international Motion Picture Association. It was formed in 1922 as a trade association whose goal was to @@ -4670,8 +4669,8 @@ distributors of entertainment for television, video, and cable. Its board is made up of the chairmen and presidents of the seven major producers and distributors of motion picture and television programs in the United States: Walt Disney, Sony Pictures Entertainment, MGM, Paramount Pictures, Twentieth -Century Fox, Universal Studios, and Warner Brothers. - +Century Fox, Universal Studios, and Warner Brothers. +
@@ -4702,7 +4701,7 @@ animates this entire debate: Creative property owners accorded the same rights and protection resident in all other property owners in the nation. That is the issue. That is the question. And that is the rostrum on which this entire hearing and the -debates to follow must rest.^[118] +debates to follow must rest.^[118]
The strategy of this rhetoric, like the strategy of most of Valenti's @@ -4726,7 +4725,7 @@ tradition, at least in Washington.
While «creative property» is certainly «property» in a nerdy and precise sense that lawyers are trained to -understand,^[119] it has never been the case, +understand,^[119] it has never been the case, nor should it be, that «creative property owners» have been «accorded the same rights and protection resident in all other property owners.» Indeed, if creative property owners were given the @@ -4841,8 +4840,8 @@ fact if the rules set in advance are violated. So if, for example, you willfully infringe Madonna's copyright by copying a song from her latest CD and posting it on the Web, you can be punished with a $150,000 fine. The fine is an ex post punishment for violating an ex ante rule. It is imposed -by the state. -
+by the state. +
Norms are a different kind of constraint. They, too, punish an individual for violating a rule. But the punishment of a norm is imposed by a community, not (or not only) by the state. There may be no law against @@ -4851,7 +4850,7 @@ ground while standing in line at a movie. The punishment might not be harsh, though depending upon the community, it could easily be more harsh than many of the punishments imposed by the state. The mark of the difference is not the severity of the rule, but the source of the enforcement. -
+
The market is a third type of constraint. Its constraint is effected through conditions: You can do X if you pay Y; you'll be paid M if you do N. These constraints are obviously not independent of law or norms—it is @@ -4859,7 +4858,7 @@ property law that defines what must be bought if it is to be taken legally; it is norms that say what is appropriately sold. But given a set of norms, and a background of property and contract law, the market imposes a simultaneous constraint upon how an individual or group might behave. -
+
Finally, and for the moment, perhaps, most mysteriously, «architecture»—the physical world as one finds it—is a constraint on behavior. A fallen bridge might constrain your @@ -4888,7 +4887,7 @@ are other constraints (there may well be; my claim is not about comprehensiveness), these four are among the most significant, and any regulator (whether controlling or freeing) must consider how these four in particular interact. -
+
So, for example, consider the «freedom» to drive a car at a high speed. That freedom is in part restricted by laws: speed limits that say how fast you can drive in particular places at particular times. It is @@ -4904,7 +4903,7 @@ norm wouldn't be as effective in a different town, or at night. The final point about this simple model should also be fairly clear: While these four modalities are analytically independent, law has a special role -in affecting the three.^[120] The law, in +in affecting the three.^[120] The law, in other words, sometimes operates to increase or decrease the constraint of a particular modality. Thus, the law might be used to increase taxes on gasoline, so as to increase the incentives to drive more slowly. The law @@ -4914,12 +4913,12 @@ reckless driving. Or the law might be used to require that other laws be more strict—a federal requirement that states decrease the speed limit, for example—so as to decrease the attractiveness of fast driving. -
Figur 10.2. Law has a special role in affecting the three.

+
Figur 10.2. Law has a special role in affecting the three.

These constraints can thus change, and they can be changed. To understand the effective protection of liberty or protection of property at any particular moment, we must track these changes over time. A restriction imposed by one modality might be erased by another. A freedom enabled by one -modality might be displaced by another.^[121] +modality might be displaced by another.^[121]
10.1. Hvorfor Hollywood har rett
The most obvious point that this model reveals is just why, or just how, Hollywood is right. The copyright warriors have rallied Congress and the @@ -4927,7 +4926,7 @@ courts to defend copyright. This model helps us see why that rallying makes sense.
Let's say this is the picture of copyright's regulation before the Internet: -
Figur 10.3. Copyright's regulation before the Internet.

+
Figur 10.3. Copyright's regulation before the Internet.

There is balance between law, norms, market, and architecture. The law @@ -4964,7 +4963,7 @@ effected, the White Paper argued (1) Congress should strengthen intellectual property law, (2) businesses should adopt innovative marketing techniques, (3) technologists should push to develop code to protect copyrighted material, and (4) educators should educate kids to better protect copyright. -
+
This mixed strategy is just what copyright needed—if it was to preserve the particular balance that existed before the change induced by @@ -4985,14 +4984,14 @@ innovation. And I would be the last person to argue that the changing technology of the Internet has not had a profound effect on the content industry's way of doing business, or as John Seely Brown describes it, its «architecture of revenue.» -
+
But just because a particular interest asks for government support, it doesn't follow that support should be granted. And just because technology has weakened a particular way of doing business, it doesn't follow that the government should intervene to support that old way of doing business. Kodak, for example, has lost perhaps as much as 20 percent of their traditional film market to the emerging technologies of digital -cameras.^[122] Does anyone believe the +cameras.^[122] Does anyone believe the government should ban digital cameras just to support Kodak? Highways have weakened the freight business for railroads. Does anyone think we should ban trucks from roads for the purpose of protecting the @@ -5003,7 +5002,7 @@ it may well be that this change has weakened the television advertising market. But does anyone believe we should regulate remotes to reinforce commercial television? (Maybe by limiting them to function only once a second, or to switch to only ten channels within an hour?) -
+
The obvious answer to these obviously rhetorical questions is no. In a free society, with a free market, supported by free enterprise and free trade, the government's role is not to support one way of doing business against @@ -5011,7 +5010,7 @@ others. Its role is not to pick winners and protect them against loss. If the government did this generally, then we would never have any progress. As Microsoft chairman Bill Gates wrote in 1991, in a memo criticizing software patents, «established companies have an interest in excluding future -competitors.»^[123] And relative to a +competitors.»^[123] And relative to a startup, established companies also have the means. (Think RCA and FM radio.) A world in which competitors with new ideas must fight not only the market but also the government is a world in which competitors with new @@ -5052,12 +5051,12 @@ In 1873, the chemical DDT was first synthesized. In 1948, Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller won the Nobel Prize for his work demonstrating the insecticidal properties of DDT. By the 1950s, the insecticide was widely used around the world to kill disease-carrying pests. It was also used to -increase farm production. +increase farm production.
No one doubts that killing disease-carrying pests or increasing crop production is a good thing. No one doubts that the work of Müller was important and valuable and probably saved lives, possibly millions. -
+
But in 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, which argued that DDT, whatever its primary benefits, was also having unintended environmental consequences. Birds were losing the ability to @@ -5070,11 +5069,11 @@ were originally attacked. Or more accurately, the problems DDT caused were worse than the problems it solved, at least when considering the other, more environmentally friendly ways to solve the problems that DDT was meant to solve. -
+
It is to this image precisely that Duke University law professor James Boyle appeals when he argues that we need an «environmentalism» for -culture.^[124] His point, and the point I +culture.^[124] His point, and the point I want to develop in the balance of this chapter, is not that the aims of copyright are flawed. Or that authors should not be paid for their work. Or that music should be given away «for free.» The point is that @@ -5098,7 +5097,7 @@ for creativity.
In a line: To kill a gnat, we are spraying DDT with consequences for free culture that will be far more devastating than that this gnat will be lost. -
10.2. Opphav
+
10.2. Opphav
America copied English copyright law. Actually, we copied and improved English copyright law. Our Constitution makes the purpose of «creative property» rights clear; its express limitations reinforce the English @@ -5162,7 +5161,7 @@ When the first Congress enacted laws to protect creative property, it faced the same uncertainty about the status of creative property that the English had confronted in 1774. Many states had passed laws protecting creative property, and some believed that these laws simply supplemented common law -rights that already protected creative authorship.^[125] This meant that there was no guaranteed public +rights that already protected creative authorship.^[125] This meant that there was no guaranteed public domain in the United States in 1790. If copyrights were protected by the common law, then there was no simple way to know whether a work published in the United States was controlled or free. Just as in England, this lingering @@ -5187,7 +5186,7 @@ republikken, s opphavsrettsregimet. Av alle verker skapt i USA både før 1790 og fra 1790 fram til 1800, så ble 95 prosent øyeblikkelig allemannseie (public domain). Resten ble allemannseie etter maksimalt 20 år, og som oftest etter -14 år.^[126] +14 år.^[126]
Dette fornyelsessystemet var en avgjørende del av det amerikanske systemet @@ -5199,11 +5198,11 @@ ikke verdt det for samfunnet Fourteen years may not seem long to us, but for the vast majority of copyright owners at that time, it was long enough: Only a small minority of them renewed their copyright after fourteen years; the balance allowed their -work to pass into the public domain.^[127] +work to pass into the public domain.^[127]
Even today, this structure would make sense. Most creative work has an actual commercial life of just a couple of years. Most books fall out of -print after one year.^[128] When that +print after one year.^[128] When that happens, the used books are traded free of copyright regulation. Thus the books are no longer effectively controlled by copyright. The only practical commercial use of the books at that time is to @@ -5263,7 +5262,7 @@ dramatic. In 1973, more than 85 percent of copyright owners failed to renew their copyright. That meant that the average term of copyright in 1973 was just 32.2 years. Because of the elimination of the renewal requirement, the average term of copyright is now the maximum term. In thirty years, then, -the average term has tripled, from 32.2 years to 95 years.^[129] +the average term has tripled, from 32.2 years to 95 years.^[129]
10.4. Loven: Virkeområde
The «scope» of a copyright is the range of rights granted by the law. The scope of American copyright has changed dramatically. Those @@ -5333,7 +5332,7 @@ copyrighted that book, then the copyright law protected you against another publisher's taking your book and republishing it without your permission. The aim of the act was to regulate publishers so as to prevent that kind of unfair competition. In 1790, there were 174 publishers in the -United States.^[130] The Copyright Act was +United States.^[130] The Copyright Act was thus a tiny regulation of a tiny proportion of a tiny part of the creative market in the United States—publishers.
@@ -5384,14 +5383,14 @@ computer. I understand the wrong in duplicating and selling someone else's work. But whatever that wrong is, transforming someone else's work is a different wrong. Some view transformation as no wrong at all—they believe that our law, as the framers penned it, should not -protect derivative rights at all.^[131] +protect derivative rights at all.^[131] Whether or not you go that far, it seems plain that whatever wrong is involved is fundamentally different from the wrong of direct piracy.
Yet copyright law treats these two different wrongs in the same way. I can go to court and get an injunction against your pirating my book. I can go to court and get an injunction against your transformative use of my -book.^[132] These two different uses of my +book.^[132] These two different uses of my creative work are treated the same.
This again may seem right to you. If I wrote a book, then why should you be @@ -5408,7 +5407,7 @@ originally granted. Whereas originally the law regulated only publishers, the change in copyright's scope means that the law today regulates publishers, users, and authors. It regulates them because all three are capable of making copies, -and the core of the regulation of copyright law is copies.^[133] +and the core of the regulation of copyright law is copies.^[133]
@@ -5426,7 +5425,7 @@ be the trigger for copyright law. More precisely, they should not This is perhaps the central claim of this book, so let me take this very slowly so that the point is not easily missed. My claim is that the Internet should at least force us to rethink the conditions under which the law of -copyright automatically applies,^[134] +copyright automatically applies,^[134] because it is clear that the current reach of copyright was never contemplated, much less chosen, by the legislators who enacted copyright law. @@ -5477,7 +5476,7 @@ are nonetheless deemed owner's views.
Enter the Internet—a distributed, digital network where every use of a -copyrighted work produces a copy.^[135] And +copyrighted work produces a copy.^[135] And because of this single, arbitrary feature of the design of a digital network, the scope of category 1 changes dramatically. Uses that before were presumptively unregulated are now presumptively regulated. No longer is @@ -5592,7 +5591,7 @@ court was that the stores were allowed to sell the films and they were permitted to list the titles of the films they were selling, but they were not allowed to show clips of the films as a way of selling them without Disney's permission. -
+
Now, you might think this is a close case, and I think the courts would consider it a close case. My point here is to map the change that gives Disney this power. Before the Internet, Disney couldn't really control how @@ -5604,7 +5603,7 @@ Disney to centralize control over access to this content. Because each use of the Internet produces a copy, use on the Internet becomes subject to the copyright owner's control. The technology expands the scope of effective control, because the technology builds a copy into every transaction. -
+
No doubt, a potential is not yet an abuse, and so the potential for control @@ -5637,16 +5636,16 @@ controlled whether and how someone was regulated by copyright law. The law, meaning a court, meaning a judge: In the end, it was a human, trained in the tradition of the law and cognizant of the balances that tradition embraced, who said whether and how the law would restrict your freedom. -
+
Det er en berømt historie om en kamp mellom Marx-brødrene (the Marx Brothers) og Warner Brothers. Marx-brødrene planla å lage en parodi av Casablanca. Warner Brothers protesterte. De skrev et ufint brev til Marx-brødrene og advarte dem om at det ville få seriøse -juridiske konsekvenser hvis de gikk videre med sin plan.^[136] +juridiske konsekvenser hvis de gikk videre med sin plan.^[136]
Dette fikk Marx-brødrene til å svare tilbake med samme mynt. De advarte Warner Brothers om at Marx-brødrene «var brødre lenge før dere var -det».^[137] Marx-brødrene eide derfor +det».^[137] Marx-brødrene eide derfor ordet Brothers, og hvis Warner Brothers insisterte på å forsøke å kontrollere Casablanca, så ville Marx-brødrene insistere på kontroll over Brothers. @@ -5663,7 +5662,7 @@ owner, get built into the technology that delivers copyrighted content. It is code, rather than law, that rules. And the problem with code regulations is that, unlike law, code has no shame. Code would not get the humor of the Marx Brothers. The consequence of that is not at all funny. -
+
La oss se på livet til min Adobe eBook Reader.
En ebok er en bok levert i elektronisk form. En Adobe eBook er ikke en bok @@ -5696,7 +5695,7 @@ button to hear Middlemarch read aloud through the computer.
Her er e-boken for et annet allemannseid verk (inkludert oversettelsen): -Aristoteles Politikk +Aristoteles Politikk
Figur 10.14. E-bok av Aristoteles «Politikk»

According to its permissions, no printing or copying is permitted at all. But fortunately, you can use the Read Aloud button to hear the book. @@ -5712,7 +5711,7 @@ Now, the Adobe eBook Reader calls these controls control how you use these works. For works under copyright, the copyright owner certainly does have the power—up to the limits of the copyright law. But for work not under copyright, there is no such copyright -power.^[138] When my e-book of +power.^[138] When my e-book of Middlemarch says I have the permission to copy only ten text selections into the memory every ten days, what that really means is that the eBook Reader has enabled the publisher to control how I use the @@ -5737,7 +5736,7 @@ simply won't read aloud. These are controls, not permissions. Imagine a world where the Marx Brothers sold word processing software that, when you tried to type «Warner Brothers,» erased «Brothers» from -the sentence. +the sentence.
This is the future of copyright law: not so much copyright law as copyright code. The @@ -5761,7 +5760,7 @@ relations nightmare. Among the books that you could download for free on the Adobe site was a copy of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. This wonderful book is in the public domain. Yet when you clicked on Permissions for that book, you got the following report: - +
Figur 10.17. Liste med tillatelser for «Alice i Eventyrland».

Here was a public domain children's book that you were not allowed to copy, not allowed to lend, not allowed to give, and, as the @@ -5791,7 +5790,7 @@ companies developing strategies to balance open access to content with incentives for companies to innovate. But Adobe's technology enables control, and Adobe has an incentive to defend this control. That incentive is understandable, yet what it creates is often crazy. -
+
To see the point in a particularly absurd context, consider a favorite story of mine that makes the same point.
@@ -5837,7 +5836,7 @@ offered to the world a bit of code that would enable the Aibo to dance jazz. The dog wasn't programmed to dance jazz. It was a clever bit of tinkering that turned the dog into a more talented creature than Sony had built. -
+
I've told this story in many contexts, both inside and outside the United States. Once I was asked by a puzzled member of the audience, is it @@ -5860,7 +5859,7 @@ coolness. Under heavy badgering by Microsoft lawyers, Ed Felten stood his ground. He was not about to be bullied into being silent about something he knew very well.
-But Felten's bravery was really tested in April 2001.^[139] He and a group of colleagues were working on a +But Felten's bravery was really tested in April 2001.^[139] He and a group of colleagues were working on a paper to be submitted at conference. The paper was intended to describe the weakness in an encryption system being developed by the Secure Digital Music Initiative as a technique to control the distribution of music. @@ -5905,7 +5904,7 @@ hack. Though a jazz-dancing dog is perfectly legal, Sony wrote: Your site contains information providing the means to circumvent AIBO-ware's copy protection protocol constituting a violation of the anti-circumvention provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. -
+
And though an academic paper describing the weakness in a system of encryption should also be perfectly legal, Felten received a letter from an RIAA lawyer that read: @@ -5941,7 +5940,7 @@ the line that copyright law drew. The DMCA regulated devices that were designed to circumvent copyright protection measures. It was designed to ban those devices, whether or not the use of the copyrighted material made possible by that circumvention would have been a copyright violation. -
+
Aibopet.com and Felten make the point. The Aibo hack circumvented a copyright protection system for the purpose of enabling the dog to dance @@ -5959,7 +5958,7 @@ system could be circumvented, the RIAA lawyer suggested, Felten himself was distributing a circumvention technology. Thus, even though he was not himself infringing anyone's copyright, his academic paper was enabling others to infringe others' copyright. -
+
The bizarreness of these arguments is captured in a cartoon drawn in 1981 by Paul Conrad. At that time, a court in California had held that the VCR could be banned because it was a copyright-infringing technology: It enabled @@ -5967,7 +5966,7 @@ consumers to copy films without the permission of the copyright owner. No doubt there were uses of the technology that were legal: Fred Rogers, aka «Mr. Rogers,» for example, had testified in that case that he wanted people to feel free to tape Mr. Rogers' -Neighborhood. +Neighborhood.
Some public stations, as well as commercial stations, program the «Neighborhood» at hours when some children cannot use it. I @@ -5982,7 +5981,7 @@ whole approach in broadcasting has always been person just the way you are. You can make healthy decisions.» Maybe I'm going on too long, but I just feel that anything that allows a person to be more active in the control of his or her life, in a healthy way, is -important.^[140] +important.^[140]
@@ -5991,7 +5990,7 @@ that were illegal, the court held the companies producing the VCR responsible.
This led Conrad to draw the cartoon below, which we can adopt to the DMCA. - +
No argument I have can top this picture, but let me try to get close.
@@ -6013,8 +6012,8 @@ are legal, despite the harm they can do, while VCRs (and circumvention technologies) are illegal. Flash: No one ever died from copyright circumvention. Yet the law bans circumvention technologies absolutely, despite the potential that they might do some good, but permits -guns, despite the obvious and tragic harm they do. -
+guns, despite the obvious and tragic harm they do. +
The Aibo and RIAA examples demonstrate how copyright owners are changing the balance that copyright law grants. Using code, copyright owners restrict fair use; using the DMCA, they punish those who would attempt to evade the @@ -6048,7 +6047,7 @@ For example, imagine you were part of a Star Trek fan club. You gathered every month to share trivia, and maybe to enact a kind of fan fiction about the show. One person would play Spock, another, Captain Kirk. The characters would begin with a plot from a real story, then simply -continue it.^[141] +continue it.^[141]
Before the Internet, this was, in effect, a totally unregulated activity. No matter what happened inside your club room, you would never be interfered @@ -6107,12 +6106,12 @@ Det er her to sorter endringer: omfanget av konsentrasjon, og dens natur. Changes in scope are the easier ones to describe. As Senator John McCain summarized the data produced in the FCC's review of media ownership, «five companies control 85 percent of our media -sources.»^[142] The five recording +sources.»^[142] The five recording labels of Universal Music Group, BMG, Sony Music Entertainment, Warner Music -Group, and EMI control 84.8 percent of the U.S. music market.^[143] The «five largest cable companies pipe +Group, and EMI control 84.8 percent of the U.S. music market.^[143] The «five largest cable companies pipe programming to 74 percent of the cable subscribers -nationwide.»^[144] - +nationwide.»^[144] +
The story with radio is even more dramatic. Before deregulation, the @@ -6136,7 +6135,7 @@ market.
Concentration in size alone is one thing. The more invidious change is in the nature of that concentration. As author James Fallows put it in a recent -article about Rupert Murdoch, +article about Rupert Murdoch,
Murdoch's companies now constitute a production system unmatched in its integration. They supply content—Fox movies … Fox TV shows @@ -6146,7 +6145,7 @@ the broadcast network, on the cable channels. And they operate the physical distribution system through which the content reaches the customers. Murdoch's satellite systems now distribute News Corp. content in Europe and Asia; if Murdoch becomes DirecTV's largest single owner, that -system will serve the same function in the United States.^[145] +system will serve the same function in the United States.^[145]
The pattern with Murdoch is the pattern of modern media. Not just large companies owning many radio stations, but a few companies owning as many @@ -6166,7 +6165,7 @@ begynt
Her er en representativ historie som kan foreslå hvorfor denne integreringen er viktig. -
+
I 1969 laget Norman Lear en polit for All in the Family. Han tok piloten til ABC, og nettverket likte det ikke. Da sa til Lear at det var for på kanten. Gjør det om igjen. Lear lagde @@ -6177,7 +6176,7 @@ ikke mer. I stedet for å føye seg, to Lear ganske enkelt serien sin til noen andre. CBS var glad for å ha seriene, og ABC kunne ikke stoppe Lear fra å gå til andre. Opphavsretten som Lear hadde sikret uavhengighet fra -nettverk-kontroll.^[146] +nettverk-kontroll.^[146]
@@ -6197,13 +6196,13 @@ new series were produced for a network by a company it controlled. Last year, the percentage of shows produced by controlled companies more than quintupled to 77 percent.» «In 1992, 16 new series were produced independently of conglomerate control, last year there was -one.»^[147] In 2002, 75 percent of +one.»^[147] In 2002, 75 percent of prime time television was owned by the networks that ran it. «In the ten-year period between 1992 and 2002, the number of prime time television hours per week produced by network studios increased over 200%, whereas the number of prime time television hours per week produced by independent -studios decreased 63%.»^[148] -
+studios decreased 63%.»^[148] +
Today, another Norman Lear with another All in the Family would find that he had the choice either to make the show less edgy or to be fired: The content of any show developed for a network is @@ -6211,14 +6210,14 @@ increasingly owned by the network.
Mens antall kanaler har økt dramatisk, har eierskapet til disse kanalene snevret inn fra få til stadig færre. Som Barry Diller sa til Bill Moyers, - +
Well, if you have companies that produce, that finance, that air on their channel and then distribute worldwide everything that goes through their controlled distribution system, then what you get is fewer and fewer actual voices participating in the process. [We u]sed to have dozens and dozens of thriving independent production companies producing television programs. Now -you have less than a handful.^[149] +you have less than a handful.^[149]
This narrowing has an effect on what is produced. The product of such large and concentrated networks is increasingly homogenous. Increasingly @@ -6229,16 +6228,16 @@ feel a bit like the communist party. No one can question without risk of consequence—not necessarily banishment to Siberia, but punishment nonetheless. Independent, critical, different views are quashed. This is not the environment for a democracy. -
+
Economics itself offers a parallel that explains why this integration affects creativity. Clay Christensen has written about the «Innovator's Dilemma»: the fact that large traditional firms find it rational to ignore new, breakthrough technologies that compete with their core business. The same analysis could help explain why large, traditional media companies would find it rational to ignore new cultural -trends.^[150] Lumbering giants not only +trends.^[150] Lumbering giants not only don't, but should not, sprint. Yet if the field is only open to the giants, -there will be far too little sprinting. +there will be far too little sprinting.
I don't think we know enough about the economics of the media market to say with certainty what concentration and integration will do. The efficiencies @@ -6302,7 +6301,7 @@ This selectivity might be thought inconsistent with the First Amendment, but the Supreme Court has held that stations have the right to choose what they run. Thus, the major channels of commercial media will refuse one side of a crucial debate the opportunity to present its case. And the courts will -defend the rights of the stations to be this biased.^[151] +defend the rights of the stations to be this biased.^[151]
I'd be happy to defend the networks' rights, as well—if we lived in a media market that was truly diverse. But concentration in the media throws @@ -6312,7 +6311,7 @@ positions it will allow to be promoted on its channels, then in an obvious and important way, concentration matters. You might like the positions the handful of companies selects. But you should not like a world in which a mere few get to decide which issues the rest of us get to know about. -

10.8. Sammen

There is something innocent and obvious about the claim of the copyright warriors that the government should «protect my property.» In the abstract, it is obviously true and, ordinarily, totally harmless. No @@ -6375,7 +6374,7 @@ part of the creative energy of a nation at the founding—is now a massive regulation of the overall creative process. Law plus technology plus the market now interact to turn this historically benign regulation into the most significant regulation of culture that our free society has -known.^[152] +known.^[152]

This has been a long chapter. Its point can now be briefly stated.

@@ -6436,7 +6435,7 @@ The issue is therefore not simply whether copyright is property. Of course copyright is a kind of «property,» and of course, as with any property, the state ought to protect it. But first impressions notwithstanding, historically, this property right (as with all property -rights^[153]) has been crafted to balance +rights^[153]) has been crafted to balance the important need to give authors and artists incentives with the equally important need to assure access to creative work. This balance has always been struck in light of new technologies. And for almost half of our @@ -6444,7 +6443,7 @@ tradition, the all the freedom of others to build upon or transform a creative work. American culture was born free, and for almost 180 years our country consistently protected a vibrant and rich free culture. -

We achieved that free culture because our law respected important limits on the scope of the interests protected by «property.» The very @@ -6471,7 +6470,7 @@ be. The property right that is copyright has become unbalanced, tilted toward an extreme. The opportunity to create and transform becomes weakened in a world in which creation requires permission and creativity must check with a lawyer. -

^[118] +

^[118] Home Recording of Copyrighted Works: Hearings on H.R. 4783, H.R. 4794, @@ -6479,7 +6478,7 @@ H.R. 4808, H.R. 5250, H.R. 5488, and H.R. 5705 Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice of the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives, 97th Cong., 2nd sess. (1982): 65 (testimony of Jack Valenti). -

^[119] +

^[119] Lawyers speak of «property» not as an absolute thing, but as a @@ -6490,7 +6489,7 @@ best effort to connect the ordinary meaning of «lawyer talk,» see Bruce Ackerman, Private Property and the Constitution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 26–27. -

^[120] +

^[120] By describing the way law affects the other three modalities, I don't mean @@ -6501,7 +6500,7 @@ more timidly expressed. See Lawrence Lessig, Code: And Ot Laws of Cyberspace (New York: Basic Books, 1999): 90–95; Lawrence Lessig, «The New Chicago School,» Journal of Legal Studies, June 1998. -

^[121] +

^[121] Some people object to this way of talking about «liberty.» They object because their focus when considering the constraints that exist at @@ -6529,9 +6528,9 @@ making access to those places easier; 42 United States Code, section 12101 (2000). Each of these interventions to change existing conditions changes the liberty of a particular group. The effect of those interventions should be accounted for in order to understand -the effective liberty that each of these groups might face. - -

^[122] +the effective liberty that each of these groups might face. + +

^[122] See Geoffrey Smith, «Film vs. Digital: Can Kodak Build a @@ -6540,26 +6539,26 @@ analysis of Kodak's place in the market, see Chana R. Schoenberger, «Can Kodak Make Up for Lost Moments?» Forbes.com, 6 October 2003, available at link #24. -

^[123] +

^[123] Fred Warshofsky, The Patent Wars (New York: Wiley, 1994), 170–71. -

^[124] +

^[124] Se for eksempel James Boyle, «A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net?» Duke Law Journal 47 (1997): 87. -

^[125] +

^[125] William W. Crosskey, Politics and the Constitution in the History of the United States (London: Cambridge University Press, 1953), vol. 1, 485–86: «extinguish[ing], by plain implication of `the supreme Law of the Land,' the perpetual rights which authors had, or were supposed by some to have, under the Common Law» -(emphasis added). -

^[126] +(emphasis added). +

^[126] Although 13,000 titles were published in the United States from 1790 to @@ -6575,7 +6574,7 @@ overwhelming majority of works fell immediately into the public domain. Even those works that were copyrighted fell into the public domain quickly, because the term of copyright was short. The initial term of copyright was fourteen years, with the option of renewal for an additional fourteen -years. Copyright Act of May 31, 1790, §1, 1 stat. 124.

^[127] +years. Copyright Act of May 31, 1790, §1, 1 stat. 124.

^[127] Few copyright holders ever chose to renew their copyrights. For instance, of @@ -6586,17 +6585,17 @@ Copyright, vol. 1 (New York: Practicing Law Institute, 1963), 618. For a more recent and comprehensive analysis, see William M. Landes and Richard A. Posner, «Indefinitely Renewable Copyright,» University of Chicago Law Review 70 (2003): 471, -498–501, and accompanying figures.

^[128] +498–501, and accompanying figures.

^[128] -Se Ringer, kap. 9, n. 2.

^[129] +Se Ringer, kap. 9, n. 2.

^[129] These statistics are understated. Between the years 1910 and 1962 (the first year the renewal term was extended), the average term was never more than thirty-two years, and averaged thirty years. See Landes and Posner, «Indefinitely Renewable Copyright,» loc. cit. -

^[130] +

^[130] See Thomas Bender and David Sampliner, «Poets, Pirates, and the @@ -6605,19 +6604,19 @@ Journal of International Law and Politics 255 (1997), and James Gilraeth, ed., Federal Copyright Records, 1790–1800 (U.S. G.P.O., 1987). -

^[131] +

^[131] Jonathan Zittrain, «The Copyright Cage», Legal -Affairs, julu/august 2003,tilgjengelig fra link #26. -

^[132] +Affairs, julu/august 2003,tilgjengelig fra link #26. +

^[132] Professor Rubenfeld has presented a powerful constitutional argument about the difference that copyright law should draw (from the perspective of the First Amendment) between mere «copies» and derivative works. See Jed Rubenfeld, «The Freedom of Imagination: Copyright's Constitutionality,» Yale Law Journal 112 -(2002): 1–60 (see especially pp. 53–59). -

^[133] +(2002): 1–60 (see especially pp. 53–59). +

^[133] This is a simplification of the law, but not much of one. The law certainly @@ -6629,14 +6628,14 @@ doesn't make a copy; 17 United States Code, section presumption under the existing law (which regulates «copies;» 17 United States Code, section 102) is that if there is a copy, there is a right. -

^[134] +

^[134] Thus, my argument is not that in each place that copyright law extends, we should repeal it. It is instead that we should have a good argument for its extending where it does, and should not determine its reach on the basis of arbitrary and automatic changes caused by technology. -

^[135] +

^[135] I don't mean «nature» in the sense that it couldn't be @@ -6644,16 +6643,16 @@ different, but rather that its present instantiation entails a copy. Optical networks need not make copies of content they transmit, and a digital network could be designed to delete anything it copies so that the same number of copies remain. -

^[136] +

^[136] Se David Lange, «Recognizing the Public Domain», Law and Contemporary Problems 44 (1981): 172–73. -

^[137] +

^[137] Ibid. Se også Vaidhyanathan, Copyrights and -Copywrongs, 1–3. -

^[138] +Copywrongs, 1–3. +

^[138] In principle, a contract might impose a requirement on me. I might, for @@ -6662,7 +6661,7 @@ it only three times, or that I promise to read it three times. But that obligation (and the limits for creating that obligation) would come from the contract, not from copyright law, and the obligations of contract would not necessarily pass to anyone who subsequently acquired the book. -

^[139] +

^[139] See Pamela Samuelson, «Anticircumvention Rules: Threat to Science,» Science 293 (2001): 2028; Brendan @@ -6675,41 +6674,41 @@ Concerns, «Is the RIAA Running Scared?» Salon.com, April 2001; Electronic Frontier Foundation, «Frequently Asked Questions about Felten and USENIX v. RIAA -Legal Case,» available at link #27. -

^[140] +Legal Case,» available at link #27. +

^[140] Sony Corporation of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 455 fn. 27 (1984). Rogers never changed his view about the VCR. See James Lardner, Fast Forward: Hollywood, the Japanese, and the Onslaught of the VCR -(New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 270–71. -

^[141] +(New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 270–71. +

^[141] For an early and prescient analysis, see Rebecca Tushnet, «Legal Fictions, Copyright, Fan Fiction, and a New Common Law,» Loyola of Los Angeles Entertainment Law Journal 17 (1997): 651. -

^[142] +

^[142] FCC Oversight: Hearing Before the Senate Commerce, Science and Transportation Committee, 108th Cong., 1st sess. (22 May 2003) (statement -of Senator John McCain).

^[143] +of Senator John McCain).

^[143] Lynette Holloway, «Despite a Marketing Blitz, CD Sales Continue to Slide,» New York Times, 23 December 2002. -

^[144] +

^[144] Molly Ivins, «Media Consolidation Must Be Stopped,» Charleston Gazette, 31 May 2003. -

^[145] +

^[145] James Fallows, «The Age of Murdoch», Atlantic -Monthly (September 2003): 89. -

^[146] +Monthly (September 2003): 89. +

^[146] Leonard Hill, «The Axis of Access,» remarks before Weidenbaum @@ -6717,7 +6716,7 @@ Center Forum, St. Louis, Missouri, 3 April 2003 (transcript of prepared remarks available at link #28; for the Lear story, not included in the prepared remarks, see link #29). -

^[147] +

^[147] NewsCorp./DirecTV Merger and Media Consolidation: Hearings on Media @@ -6726,18 +6725,18 @@ sess. (2003) (testimony of Gene Kimmelman on behalf of Consumers Union and the Consumer Federation of America), available at link #30. Kimmelman quotes Victoria Riskin, president of Writers Guild of America, West, in her Remarks at FCC En Banc Hearing, Richmond, Virginia, 27 February 2003. -

^[148] +

^[148] ibid. -

^[149] +

^[149] «Barry Diller Takes on Media Deregulation», Now with Bill Moyers, Bill Moyers, 25 April 2003, redigert avskrift tilgjengelig fra link #31. -

^[150] +

^[150] Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma: The @@ -6750,7 +6749,7 @@ Policy 14 (1985): 235–51. For a more recent study, see Richard Foster and Sarah Kaplan, Creative Destruction: Why Companies That Are Built to Last Underperform the Market—and How to Successfully Transform Them (New York: Currency/Doubleday, -2001).

^[151] +2001).

^[151] The Marijuana Policy Project, in February 2003, sought to place ads that directly responded to the Nick and Norm series on stations within the @@ -6775,25 +6774,25 @@ networks. In a recent example from San Francisco, the San Francisco transit authority rejected an ad that criticized its Muni diesel buses. Phillip Matier and Andrew Ross, «Antidiesel Group Fuming After Muni Rejects Ad,» SFGate.com, 16 June 2003, available at link #32. The ground was that -the criticism was «too controversial.» - -

^[152] +the criticism was «too controversial.» + +

^[152] Siva Vaidhyanathan fanger et lignende poeng i hans «fire kapitulasjoner» for opphavsrettsloven i den digitale tidsalder. Se -Vaidhyanathan, 159–60. -

^[153] +Vaidhyanathan, 159–60. +

^[153] It was the single most important contribution of the legal realist movement to demonstrate that all property rights are always crafted to balance public and private interests. See Thomas C. Grey, «The Disintegration of Property,» in Nomos XXII: Property, J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman, eds. (New York: New York University Press, -1980). +1980).

Del III. Nøtter

Kapittel elleve: Chimera

In a well-known short story by H. G. Wells, a mountain climber named Nunez trips (literally, down an ice slope) into an unknown and isolated valley in -the Peruvian Andes.^[154] The valley is +the Peruvian Andes.^[154] The valley is extraordinarily beautiful, with «sweet water, pasture, an even climate, slopes of rich brown soil with tangles of a shrub that bore an excellent fruit.» But the villagers are all blind. Nunez takes this @@ -6852,7 +6851,7 @@ with two sets of DNA. The DNA in the blood, for example, might be different from the DNA of the skin. This possibility is an underused plot for murder mysteries. «But the DNA shows with 100 percent certainty that she was not the person whose blood was at the scene. …» -

Before I had read about chimeras, I would have said they were impossible. A single person can't have two sets of DNA. The very idea of DNA is that it is the code of an individual. Yet in fact, not only can two individuals have @@ -6887,7 +6886,7 @@ into a Tower Records and taking a CD off the shelf and walking out with it,» that's true, at least in part. If, after Lyle Lovett (finally) releases a new album, rather than buying it, I go to Kazaa and find a free copy to take, that is very much like stealing a copy from Tower. - +

@@ -6912,9 +6911,9 @@ could prosecute families for millions of dollars in damages just because file sharing occurred on a family computer. And we can get universities to monitor all computer traffic to make sure that no computer is used to commit this crime. These responses might be extreme, but each of them has either -been proposed or actually implemented.^[155] +been proposed or actually implemented.^[155] -

Alternatively, we could respond to file sharing the way many kids act as though we've responded. We could totally legalize it. Let there be no copyright liability, either civil or criminal, for making copyrighted @@ -6966,23 +6965,23 @@ turn will directly influence the options that are available to consumers, both in terms of the ease with which they will be able to access digital media and the equipment that they will require to do so. Poor choices made this early in the game will retard the growth of this market, hurting -everyone's interests.^[156] +everyone's interests.^[156]

In April 2001, eMusic.com was purchased by Vivendi Universal, one of «the major labels.» Its position on these matters has now -changed. +changed.

Reversing our tradition of tolerance now will not merely quash piracy. It will sacrifice values that are important to this culture, and will kill opportunities that could be extraordinarily valuable. -

^[154] +

^[154] H. G. Wells, «The Country of the Blind» (1904, 1911). Se H. G. Wells, The Country of the Blind and Other Stories, Michael Sherborne, ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). -

^[155] +

^[155] For an excellent summary, see the report prepared by GartnerG2 and the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School, @@ -7010,8 +7009,8 @@ Fines, RIAA's targeting of student file sharing, and of the subpoenas issued to universities to reveal student file-sharer identities, see James Collins, «RIAA Steps Up Bid to Force BC, MIT to Name Students,» -Boston Globe, 8 August 2003, D3, available at link #36. -

^[156] +Boston Globe, 8 August 2003, D3, available at link #36. +

^[156] WIPO and the DMCA One Year Later: Assessing Consumer Access to Digital @@ -7035,12 +7034,12 @@ In my view, it is not. There is no good reason why this time, for the first time, the law should defend the old against the new, just when the power of the property called «intellectual property» is at its greatest in our history. -

Yet «common sense» does not see it this way. Common sense is still on the side of the Causbys and the content industry. The extreme claims of control in the name of property still resonate; the uncritical rejection of «piracy» still has play. -

There will be many consequences of continuing this war. I want to describe @@ -7098,14 +7097,14 @@ was just one) were threatened with a $98 billion lawsuit for building search engines that permitted songs to be copied. Yet World-Com—which defrauded investors of $11 billion, resulting in a loss to investors in market capitalization of over $200 billion—received a fine of a mere -$750 million.^[157] And under legislation +$750 million.^[157] And under legislation being pushed in Congress right now, a doctor who negligently removes the wrong leg in an operation would be liable for no more than $250,000 in -damages for pain and suffering.^[158] Can +damages for pain and suffering.^[158] Can common sense recognize the absurdity in a world where the maximum fine for downloading two songs off the Internet is more than the fine for a doctor's -negligently butchering a patient? -

+negligently butchering a patient? +

The consequence of this legal uncertainty, tied to these extremely high penalties, is that an extraordinary amount of creativity will either never be exercised, or never be exercised in the open. We drive this creative @@ -7118,7 +7117,7 @@ the Soviet Union, though for very different reasons, we will begin to see a world of underground art—not because the message is necessarily political, or because the subject is controversial, but because the very act of creating the art is legally fraught. Already, exhibits of «illegal -art» tour the United States.^[159] In +art» tour the United States.^[159] In what does their «illegality» consist? In the act of mixing the culture around us with an expression that is critical or reflective.

@@ -7203,7 +7202,7 @@ pages into a book like this), then you can see this other aspect by substituting «free market» every place I've spoken of «free culture.» The point is the same, even if the interests affecting culture are more fundamental. -

The charge I've been making about the regulation of culture is the same charge free marketers make about regulating markets. Everyone, of course, concedes that some regulation of markets is necessary—at a minimum, we @@ -7214,7 +7213,7 @@ just because some regulation is good, it doesn't follow that more regulation is better. And both perspectives are constantly attuned to the ways in which regulation simply enables the powerful industries of today to protect themselves against the competitors of tomorrow. -

This is the single most dramatic effect of the shift in regulatory strategy that I described in chapter 10. The consequence of this massive threat of liability @@ -7229,7 +7228,7 @@ Valley—has been learned. Consider one example to make the point, a story whose beginning I told in The Future of Ideas and which has progressed in a way that even I (pessimist extraordinaire) would never have predicted. -

In 1997, Michael Roberts launched a company called MP3.com. MP3.com was keen to remake the music business. Their goal was not just to facilitate new ways to get access to content. Their goal was also to facilitate new ways to @@ -7241,7 +7240,7 @@ To make this system work, however, MP3.com needed a reliable way to recommend music to its users. The idea behind this alternative was to leverage the revealed preferences of music listeners to recommend new artists. If you like Lyle Lovett, you're likely to enjoy Bonnie Raitt. And -so on. +so on.

This idea required a simple way to gather data about user preferences. MP3.com came up with an extraordinarily clever way to gather this preference @@ -7296,11 +7295,11 @@ som gir r som får lide hvis innholdsindustrien retter sine våpen mot dem. Det får også du. Så de av dere som tror loven burde være mindre restriktiv bør innse at et slikt syn på loven vil koste deg og ditt firma dyrt. -

This strategy is not just limited to the lawyers. In April 2003, Universal and EMI brought a lawsuit against Hummer Winblad, the venture capital firm (VC) that had funded Napster at a certain stage of its development, its -cofounder ( John Hummer), and general partner (Hank Barry).^[160] The claim here, as well, was that the VC should +cofounder ( John Hummer), and general partner (Hank Barry).^[160] The claim here, as well, was that the VC should have recognized the right of the content industry to control how the industry should develop. They should be held personally liable for funding a company whose business turned out to be beyond the law. Here again, the aim @@ -7310,14 +7309,14 @@ not just in the marketplace, but in the courtroom as well. Your investment buys you not only a company, it also buys you a lawsuit. So extreme has the environment become that even car manufacturers are afraid of technologies that touch content. In an article in Business 2.0, -Rafe Needleman describes a discussion with BMW: -

+Rafe Needleman describes a discussion with BMW: +
I asked why, with all the storage capacity and computer power in the car, there was no way to play MP3 files. I was told that BMW engineers in Germany had rigged a new vehicle to play MP3s via the car's built-in sound system, but that the company's marketing and legal departments weren't comfortable with pushing this forward for release stateside. Even today, no new cars are -sold in the United States with bona fide MP3 players. … ^[161] +sold in the United States with bona fide MP3 players. … ^[161]
Dette er verden til mafiaen—fylt med «penger eller livet»-trusler, som ikke er regulert av domstolene men av trusler som @@ -7340,7 +7339,7 @@ only have fewer parking tickets, we'd also have much less driving. The same principle applies to innovation. If innovation is constantly checked by this uncertain and unlimited liability, we will have much less vibrant innovation and much less creativity. -
+
The point is directly parallel to the crunchy-lefty point about fair use. Whatever the «real» law is, realism about the effect of law in both contexts is the same. This wildly punitive system of regulation @@ -7379,17 +7378,17 @@ distributors have a harder time controlling the distribution of content. One obvious response to this efficiency is thus to make the Internet less efficient. If the Internet enables «piracy,» then, this response says, we should break the kneecaps of the Internet. -
+
The examples of this form of legislation are many. At the urging of the content industry, some in Congress have threatened legislation that would require computers to determine whether the content they access is protected -or not, and to disable the spread of protected content.^[162] Congress has already launched proceedings to +or not, and to disable the spread of protected content.^[162] Congress has already launched proceedings to explore a mandatory «broadcast flag» that would be required on any device capable of transmitting digital video (i.e., a computer), and that would disable the copying of any content that is marked with a broadcast flag. Other members of Congress have proposed immunizing content providers from liability for technology they might deploy that would hunt -down copyright violators and disable their machines.^[163] +down copyright violators and disable their machines.^[163]
In one sense, these solutions seem sensible. If the problem is the code, why @@ -7400,9 +7399,9 @@ will likely be eclipsed by advances around exactly those requirements.
In March 2002, a broad coalition of technology companies, led by Intel, tried to get Congress to see the harm that such legislation would -impose.^[164] Their argument was obviously +impose.^[164] Their argument was obviously not that copyright should not be protected. Instead, they argued, any -protection should not do more harm than good. +protection should not do more harm than good.
There is one more obvious way in which this war has harmed innovation—again, a story that will be quite familiar to the free @@ -7415,7 +7414,7 @@ regulation the powerful use to defeat competitors.
As I described in chapter 10, despite this feature of copyright as regulation, and subject to important qualifications outlined by Jessica Litman in her book -Digital Copyright,^[165] overall this history of copyright is not bad. As chapter 10 +Digital Copyright,^[165] overall this history of copyright is not bad. As chapter 10 details, when new technologies have come along, Congress has struck a balance to assure that the new is protected from the old. Compulsory, or statutory, licenses have been one part of that strategy. Free use (as in the @@ -7427,12 +7426,12 @@ new technology and the legitimate rights of content creators, both the courts and Congress have imposed legal restrictions that will have the effect of smothering the new to benefit the old.
-The response by the courts has been fairly universal.^[166] It has been mirrored in the responses threatened +The response by the courts has been fairly universal.^[166] It has been mirrored in the responses threatened and actually implemented by Congress. I won't catalog all of those responses -here.^[167] But there is one example that +here.^[167] But there is one example that captures the flavor of them all. This is the story of the demise of Internet radio. -
+
As I described in chapter 4, when a radio station plays a song, the recording artist @@ -7442,7 +7441,7 @@ version of performance before President Kennedy at Madison Square Garden— then whenever that recording was played on the radio, the current copyright owners of «Happy Birthday» would get some money, whereas -Marilyn Monroe would not. +Marilyn Monroe would not.
The reasoning behind this balance struck by Congress makes some sense. The justification was that radio was a kind of advertising. The recording artist @@ -7470,7 +7469,7 @@ because the potential audience for Internet radio is the whole world, niche stations could easily develop and market their content to a relatively large number of users worldwide. According to some estimates, more than eighty million users worldwide have tuned in to this new form of radio. -
+
@@ -7492,11 +7491,11 @@ mass communications by imposing restrictive licenses on it. This tyranny was broken only when it became possible for men freely to acquire printing presses and freely to run them. FM in this sense was as great an invention as the printing presses, for it gave radio the opportunity to strike off its -shackles.^[168] +shackles.^[168]

This potential for FM radio was never realized—not because Armstrong was wrong about the technology, but because he underestimated the power of -«vested interests, habits, customs and legislation»^[169] to retard the growth of this competing technology. +«vested interests, habits, customs and legislation»^[169] to retard the growth of this competing technology.

Now the very same claim could be made about Internet radio. For again, there is no technical limitation that could restrict the number of Internet radio @@ -7520,9 +7519,9 @@ This financial burden is not slight. As Harvard law professor William Fisher estimates, if an Internet radio station distributed adfree popular music to (on average) ten thousand listeners, twenty-four hours a day, the total artist fees that radio station would owe would be over $1 million a -year.^[170] A regular radio station +year.^[170] A regular radio station broadcasting the same content would pay no equivalent fee. -

The burden is not financial only. Under the original rules that were proposed, an Internet radio station (but not a terrestrial radio station) would have to collect the following data from every listening @@ -7590,7 +7589,7 @@ not. Why? What justifies this difference? Was there any study of the economic consequences from Internet radio that would justify these differences? Was the motive to protect artists against piracy? -

+
In a rare bit of candor, one RIAA expert admitted what seemed obvious to everyone at the time. As Alex Alben, vice president for Public Policy at Real Networks, told me, @@ -7605,12 +7604,12 @@ up with a rate that's so much higher? Why is it worth more than radio? Because here we have hundreds of thousands of webcasters who want to pay, and that should establish the market rate, and if you set the rate so high, you're going to drive the small webcasters out of business. …» -
+
And the RIAA experts said, «Well, we don't really model this as an industry with thousands of webcasters, we think it should be an industry with, you know, five or seven big players who can pay a high rate and it's a stable, predictable market.» (Emphasis added.) -

Translation: The aim is to use the law to eliminate competition, so that this platform of potentially immense competition, which would cause the diversity and range of content available to explode, would not cause pain to @@ -7630,7 +7629,7 @@ citizens and weakens the rule of law. The war that is being waged today is a war of prohibition. As with every war of prohibition, it is targeted against the behavior of a very large number of citizens. According to The New York Times, 43 -million Americans downloaded music in May 2002.^[171] According to the RIAA, the behavior of those 43 million Americans +million Americans downloaded music in May 2002.^[171] According to the RIAA, the behavior of those 43 million Americans is a felony. We thus have a set of rules that transform 20 percent of America into criminals. As the RIAA launches lawsuits against not only the Napsters and Kazaas of the world, but against students building search @@ -7649,7 +7648,7 @@ money he had in the world ($12,000) to make the suit go away. The same strategy animates the RIAA's suits against individual users. In September 2003, the RIAA sued 261 individuals—including a twelve-year-old girl living in public housing and a seventy-year-old man who had no idea what -file sharing was.^[172] As these scapegoats +file sharing was.^[172] As these scapegoats discovered, it will always cost more to defend against these suits than it would cost to simply settle. (The twelve year old, for example, like Jesse Jordan, paid her life savings of $2,000 to settle the case.) Our law is an @@ -7664,15 +7663,15 @@ gallons per capita per year. The war against drinking initially reduced that consumption to just 30 percent of its preprohibition levels, but by the end of prohibition, consumption was up to 70 percent of the preprohibition level. Americans were drinking just about as much, but now, a vast number -were criminals.^[173] We have launched a war +were criminals.^[173] We have launched a war on drugs aimed at reducing the consumption of regulated narcotics that 7 -percent (or 16 million) Americans now use.^[174] That is a drop from the high (so to speak) in 1979 of 14 percent of +percent (or 16 million) Americans now use.^[174] That is a drop from the high (so to speak) in 1979 of 14 percent of the population. We regulate automobiles to the point where the vast majority of Americans violate the law every day. We run such a complex tax system -that a majority of cash businesses regularly cheat.^[175] We pride ourselves on our «free +that a majority of cash businesses regularly cheat.^[175] We pride ourselves on our «free society,» but an endless array of ordinary behavior is regulated within our society. And as a result, a huge proportion of Americans -regularly violate at least some law. +regularly violate at least some law.
This state of affairs is not without consequence. It is a particularly salient issue for teachers like me, whose job it is to teach law students @@ -7688,7 +7687,7 @@ case is over. Generations of Americans—more significantly in some parts of America than in others, but still, everywhere in America today—can't live their lives both normally and legally, since «normally» entails a certain degree of illegality. - +
The response to this general illegality is either to enforce the law more severely or to change the law. We, as a society, have to learn how to make @@ -7748,7 +7747,7 @@ copy-protection technologies, I am Apple Corporation went so far as to suggest that «freedom» was a right: In a series of commercials, Apple endorsed the «Rip, Mix, Burn» capacities of digital technologies. -
+
This «use» of my records is certainly valuable. I have begun a large process at home of ripping all of my and my wife's CDs, and storing them in one archive. Then, using Apple's iTunes, or a wonderful program @@ -7817,10 +7816,10 @@ directly from any war of prohibition. As Electronic Frontier Foundation attorney Fred von Lohmann describes, this is the «collateral damage» that «arises whenever you turn a very large percentage of the population into criminals.» This is the collateral damage to -civil liberties generally. +civil liberties generally.
«Hvis du kan behandle noen som en antatt lovbryter», forklarer -von Lohmann, +von Lohmann,
then all of a sudden a lot of basic civil liberty protections evaporate to one degree or another. … If you're a copyright infringer, how can you @@ -7850,12 +7849,12 @@ copyrighted music from file-sharing systems. But as we've seen, the potential damages from these suits are astronomical: If a family's computer is used to download a single CD's worth of music, the family could be liable for $2 million in damages. That didn't stop the RIAA from suing a number of -these families, just as they had sued Jesse Jordan.^[176] +these families, just as they had sued Jesse Jordan.^[176]
Even this understates the espionage that is being waged by the RIAA. A report from CNN late last summer described a strategy the RIAA had adopted -to track Napster users.^[177] Using a +to track Napster users.^[177] Using a sophisticated hashing algorithm, the RIAA took what is in effect a fingerprint of every song in the Napster catalog. Any copy of one of those MP3s will have the same «fingerprint.» @@ -7869,7 +7868,7 @@ if the college network is espionage, and she hasn't properly protected her content from the network (do you know how to do that yourself ?), then the RIAA will be able to identify your daughter as a «criminal.» And under the rules -that universities are beginning to deploy,^[178] your daughter can lose the right to use the university's computer +that universities are beginning to deploy,^[178] your daughter can lose the right to use the university's computer network. She can, in some cases, be expelled.
Now, of course, she'll have the right to defend herself. You can hire a @@ -7880,7 +7879,7 @@ university might not believe her. It might treat this «contraband» as presumptive of guilt. And as any number of college students have already learned, our presumptions about innocence disappear in the middle of wars of prohibition. This war is no different. -Says von Lohmann, +Says von Lohmann,
So when we're talking about numbers like forty to sixty million Americans that are essentially copyright infringers, you create a situation where the @@ -7905,15 +7904,15 @@ same objective— securing rights to authors—without these millions being considered «criminals,» who is the villain? Americans or the law? Which is American, a constant war on our own people or a concerted effort through our democracy to change our law? -

^[157] +

^[157] Se Lynne W. Jeter, Disconnected: Deceit and Betrayal at WorldCom (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2003), 176, 204; for detaljer om dette forliket, se pressemelding fra MCI, «MCI Wins U.S. District Court Approval for SEC Settlement» (7. juli 2003), tilgjengelig fra link -#37. -
^[158] +#37. +
^[158] The bill, modeled after California's tort reform model, was passed in the House of Representatives but defeated in a Senate vote in July 2003. For an overview, see Tanya Albert, «Measure Stalls in Senate: `We'll Be @@ -7922,8 +7921,8 @@ Back,' Say Tort Reformers, «Senate Turns Back Malpractice Caps,» CBSNews.com, 9 July 2003, available at link #39. President Bush has continued to urge tort reform in recent -months. -
^[159] +months. +
^[159] @@ -7931,7 +7930,7 @@ Se Danit Lidor, Wired, 7. juli 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #40. For en oversikt over utstillingen, se link #41. -
^[160] +
^[160] See Joseph Menn, «Universal, EMI Sue Napster Investor,» @@ -7941,30 +7940,30 @@ Janelle Brown, Salon.com, 1 June 2001, available at link #42. See also Jon Healey, «Online Music Services Besieged,» Los Angeles Times, 28 May 2001. -
^[161] +
^[161] Rafe Needleman, «Driving in Cars with MP3s», Business 2.0, 16. juni 2003, tilgjengelig via link #43. Jeg er Dr. Mohammad -Al-Ubaydli takknemlig mot for dette eksemplet. -
^[162] +Al-Ubaydli takknemlig mot for dette eksemplet. +
^[162] «Copyright and Digital Media in a Post-Napster World,» GartnerG2 and the Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School (2003), 33–35, available at link #44. -
^[163] +
^[163] GartnerG2, 26–27. -
^[164] +
^[164] See David McGuire, «Tech Execs Square Off Over Piracy,» Newsbytes, February 2002 (Entertainment). -
^[165] +
^[165] Jessica Litman, Digital Copyright (Amherst, N.Y.: -Prometheus Books, 2001). -
^[166] +Prometheus Books, 2001). +
^[166] The only circuit court exception is found in Recording Industry @@ -7980,9 +7979,9 @@ Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd., 259 F. Supp. 2d 1029 (C.D. Cal., 2003), where the court found the link between the distributor and any given user's conduct too attenuated to make the distributor liable for contributory or vicarious infringement liability. -
^[167] +
^[167] - For example, in July 2002, + For example, in July 2002, Representative Howard Berman introduced the Peer-to-Peer Piracy Prevention Act (H.R. 5211), which would immunize copyright holders from liability for damage done to computers when the copyright holders use technology to stop @@ -7994,17 +7993,17 @@ content. And in March of the same year, Senator Fritz Hollings introduced the Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act, which mandated copyright protection technology in all digital media devices. See GartnerG2, «Copyright and Digital Media in a Post-Napster World,» 27 June -2003, 33–34, available at link #44. - -
^[168] +2003, 33–34, available at link #44. + +
^[168] Lessing, 239. -
^[169] +
^[169] Ibid., 229. -
^[170] +
^[170] This example was derived from fees set by the original Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel (CARP) proceedings, and is drawn from an example offered by @@ -8020,39 +8019,39 @@ these are just old-fashioned entry barriers. Analog radio stations are protected from digital entrants, reducing entry in radio and diversity. Yes, this is done in the name of getting royalties to copyright holders, but, absent the play of powerful interests, that could have been done in a -media-neutral way.» - -
^[171] +media-neutral way.» + +
^[171] Mike Graziano and Lee Rainie, «The Music Downloading Deluge,» Pew Internet and American Life Project (24 April 2001), available at link #46. The Pew Internet and American Life Project reported that 37 million Americans had downloaded music files from the Internet by early 2001. -
^[172] +
^[172] Alex Pham, «The Labels Strike Back: N.Y. Girl Settles RIAA Case,» Los Angeles Times, 10 September 2003, Business. -
^[173] +
^[173] Jeffrey A. Miron and Jeffrey Zwiebel, «Alcohol Consumption During Prohibition,» American Economic Review 81, no. 2 (1991): 242. -
^[174] +
^[174] National Drug Control Policy: Hearing Before the House Government Reform Committee, 108th Cong., 1st sess. (5 March 2003) (statement of John P. Walters, director of National Drug Control Policy). -
^[175] +
^[175] See James Andreoni, Brian Erard, and Jonathon Feinstein, «Tax Compliance,» Journal of Economic Literature 36 (1998): 818 (survey of compliance literature). -
^[176] +
^[176] See Frank Ahrens, «RIAA's Lawsuits Meet Surprised Targets; Single @@ -8067,12 +8066,12 @@ September 2003, 4D; John Schwartz, Snoop Fan, Either,» New York Times, 25 September 2003, C1; Margo Varadi, «Is Brianna a Criminal?» Toronto Star, 18 September 2003, P7. -
^[177] +
^[177] Se Nick Brown, «Fair Use No More?: Copyright in the Information Age», tilgjengelig fra link #49. -
^[178] +
^[178] See Jeff Adler, «Cambridge: On Campus, Pirates Are Not @@ -8168,7 +8167,7 @@ successfully (Cinderella), sometimes not (The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Treasure Planet). These are all commercial publications of public domain works. -
+
The Internet created the possibility of noncommercial publications of public domain works. Eldred's is just one example. There are literally thousands of others. Hundreds of thousands from across the world have discovered this @@ -8177,7 +8176,7 @@ for the taking. This has produced what we might call the «noncommercial publishing industry,» which before the Internet was limited to people with large egos or with political or social causes. But with the Internet, it includes a wide range of individuals and -groups dedicated to spreading culture generally.^[179] +groups dedicated to spreading culture generally.^[179]
As I said, Eldred lives in New Hampshire. In 1998, Robert Frost's collection of poems New Hampshire was slated to pass into the @@ -8189,13 +8188,13 @@ any works more recent than 1923 to his collection until 2019. Indeed, no copyrighted work would pass into the public domain until that year (and not even then, if Congress extends the term again). By contrast, in the same period, more than 1 million patents will pass into the public domain. -
+
This was the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA), enacted in memory of the congressman and former musician Sonny Bono, who, his widow, Mary Bono, says, believed that «copyrights should be -forever.»^[180] +forever.»^[180]
Eldred decided to fight this law. He first resolved to fight it through @@ -8232,7 +8231,7 @@ requirement that terms be effect. If every time a copyright is about to expire, Congress has the power to extend its term, then Congress can achieve what the Constitution plainly forbids—perpetual terms «on the installment plan,» as -Professor Peter Jaszi so nicely put it. +Professor Peter Jaszi so nicely put it.
As an academic, my first response was to hit the books. I remember sitting late at the office, scouring on-line databases for any serious consideration @@ -8320,10 +8319,10 @@ In the lobbying that led to the passage of the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, this «theory» about incentives was proved real. Ten of the thirteen original sponsors of the act in the House received the maximum contribution from Disney's political action committee; in the -Senate, eight of the twelve sponsors received contributions.^[181] The RIAA and the MPAA are estimated to have spent +Senate, eight of the twelve sponsors received contributions.^[181] The RIAA and the MPAA are estimated to have spent over $1.5 million lobbying in the 1998 election cycle. They paid out more -than $200,000 in campaign contributions.^[182] Disney is estimated to have contributed more than $800,000 to -reelection campaigns in the cycle.^[183] +than $200,000 in campaign contributions.^[182] Disney is estimated to have contributed more than $800,000 to +reelection campaigns in the cycle.^[183]
Constitutional law is not oblivious to the obvious. Or at least, it need not @@ -8355,7 +8354,7 @@ limit to Congress's power to regulate, since just about every activity, when considered on a national scale, affects interstate commerce. A Constitution designed to limit Congress's power was instead interpreted to impose no limit. -
+
The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Rehnquist's command, changed that in United States v. Lopez. The government had argued that possessing guns near schools affected interstate @@ -8368,15 +8367,15 @@ activity affects interstate commerce. The Supreme Court, the government said, was not in the position to second-guess Congress.
«We pause to consider the implications of the government's -arguments,» the Chief Justice wrote.^[184] If anything Congress says is interstate commerce must therefore be +arguments,» the Chief Justice wrote.^[184] If anything Congress says is interstate commerce must therefore be considered interstate commerce, then there would be no limit to Congress's power. The decision in Lopez was reaffirmed five years later in United States -v. Morrison.^[185] +v. Morrison.^[185]
If a principle were at work here, then it should apply to the Progress -Clause as much as the Commerce Clause.^[186] +Clause as much as the Commerce Clause.^[186] And if it is applied to the Progress Clause, the principle should yield the conclusion that Congress can't extend an existing term. If Congress could extend an existing term, then there would be no «stopping @@ -8414,10 +8413,10 @@ fighting a piracy that affects us all.
Some people view the public domain with contempt. In their brief before the Supreme Court, the Nashville Songwriters Association wrote that the public -domain is nothing more than «legal piracy.»^[187] But it is not piracy when the law allows it; and in +domain is nothing more than «legal piracy.»^[187] But it is not piracy when the law allows it; and in our constitutional system, our law requires it. Some may not like the Constitution's requirements, but that doesn't make the Constitution a -pirate's charter. +pirate's charter.
As we've seen, our constitutional system requires limits on copyright as a way to assure that copyright holders do not too heavily influence the @@ -8441,7 +8440,7 @@ affected by the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, 2 percent of that work has any continuing commercial value. It was the copyright holders for that 2 percent who pushed the CTEA through. But the law and its effect were not limited to that 2 percent. The law extended the terms of copyright -generally.^[188] +generally.^[188]
@@ -8451,7 +8450,7 @@ as a businessperson, and not as a lawyer eager for more legal work. In 1930, print. Let's say you were Brewster Kahle, and you wanted to make available to the world in your iArchive project the remaining 9,873. What would you have to do? -
+
Well, first, you'd have to determine which of the 9,873 books were still under copyright. That requires going to a library (these data are not on-line) and paging through tomes of books, cross-checking the titles and @@ -8507,7 +8506,7 @@ to be used. The consequence with respect to old books is that they won't be digitized, and hence will simply rot away on shelves. But the consequence for other creative works is much more dire. -
+
Consider the story of Michael Agee, chairman of Hal Roach Studios, which owns the copyrights for the Laurel and Hardy films. Agee is a direct beneficiary of the Bono Act. The Laurel and Hardy films were made between @@ -8517,7 +8516,7 @@ after 1923 would have begun entering the public domain. Because Agee controls the exclusive rights for these popular films, he makes a great deal of money. According to one estimate, «Roach has sold about 60,000 videocassettes and 50,000 DVDs of the duo's silent -films.»^[189] +films.»^[189]
Yet Agee opposed the CTEA. His reasons demonstrate a rare virtue in this culture: selflessness. He argued in a brief before the Supreme Court that @@ -8536,7 +8535,7 @@ We can't know the benefits, but we do know a lot about the costs. For most of the history of film, the costs of restoring film were very high; digital technology has lowered these costs substantially. While it cost more than $10,000 to restore a ninety-minute black-and-white film in 1993, it can now -cost as little as $100 to digitize one hour of mm film.^[190] +cost as little as $100 to digitize one hour of mm film.^[190]
Restoration technology is not the only cost, nor the most important. @@ -8568,7 +8567,7 @@ costs. But for the vast majority of them, there is no way the benefit would outweigh the legal costs. Thus, for the vast majority of old films, Agee argued, the film will not be restored and distributed until the copyright expires. -
+
But by the time the copyright for these films expires, the film will have expired. These films were produced on nitrate-based stock, and nitrate stock dissolves over time. They will be gone, and the metal canisters in which @@ -8670,7 +8669,7 @@ library is bigger than this—if you think its role is to archive culture, whether there's a demand for any particular bit of that culture or not—then we can't count on the commercial market to do our library work for us. -
+
I would be the first to agree that it should do as much as it can: We should rely upon the market as much as possible to spread and enable culture. My message is absolutely not antimarket. But where we see the market is not @@ -8678,7 +8677,7 @@ doing the job, then we should allow nonmarket forces the freedom to fill the gaps. As one researcher calculated for American culture, 94 percent of the films, books, and music produced between and 1946 is not commercially available. However much you love the commercial market, if access is a -value, then 6 percent is a failure to provide that value.^[191] +value, then 6 percent is a failure to provide that value.^[191]
In January 1999, we filed a lawsuit on Eric Eldred's behalf in federal @@ -8708,7 +8707,7 @@ We asked the Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit as a whole to hear the case. Cases are ordinarily heard in panels of three, except for important cases or cases that raise issues specific to the circuit as a whole, where the court will sit «en banc» to hear the case. -
+
The Court of Appeals rejected our request to hear the case en banc. This time, Judge Sentelle was joined by the most liberal member of the @@ -8739,7 +8738,7 @@ Men min klient og disse vennene tok feil. Denne saken kunne v burde ha vært vunnet. Og uansett hvor hardt jeg prøver å fortelle den historien til meg selv, kan jeg aldri unnslippe troen på at det er min feil at vi ikke vant. -
+
Feil ble gjort tidlig, skjønt den ble først åpenbart på slutten. Vår sak hadde støtte hos en ekstraordinær advokat, Geoffrey Stewart, helt fra @@ -8748,7 +8747,7 @@ Pogue. Jones Day mottok mye press fra sine opphavsrettsbeskyttende klienter på grunn av sin støtte til oss. De ignorert dette presset (noe veldig få advokatfirmaer noen sinne ville gjøre), og ga alt de hadde gjennom hele saken. -
+
Det var tre viktige advokater på saken fra Jones DaY. Geoff Stewart var den først, men siden ble Dan Bromberg og Don Ayer ganske involvert. Bromberg og Ayer spesielt hadde en felles oppfatning om hvordan denne saken ville bli @@ -8809,7 +8808,7 @@ the general public seem to get bogged down? editorial documented, was the power of money. Schlafly enumerated Disney's contributions to the key players on the committees. It was money, not justice, that gave Mickey Mouse twenty more years in Disney's control, -Schlafly argued. +Schlafly argued.
In the Court of Appeals, Eagle Forum was eager to file a brief supporting our position. Their brief made the argument that became the core claim in @@ -8825,18 +8824,18 @@ were two law professors' briefs, one by copyright scholars and one by First Amendment scholars. There was an exhaustive and uncontroverted brief by the world's experts in the history of the Progress Clause. And of course, there was a new brief by Eagle Forum, repeating and strengthening its arguments. - +
Those briefs framed a legal argument. Then to support the legal argument, there were a number of powerful briefs by libraries and archives, including the Internet Archive, the American Association of Law Libraries, and the -National Writers Union. -
+National Writers Union. +
But two briefs captured the policy argument best. One made the argument I've already described: A brief by Hal Roach Studios argued that unless the law was struck, a whole generation of American film would disappear. The other made the economic argument absolutely clear. -
+
This economists' brief was signed by seventeen economists, including five Nobel Prize winners, including Ronald Coase, James Buchanan, Milton Friedman, Kenneth Arrow, and George Akerlof. The economists, as the list of @@ -8856,7 +8855,7 @@ history with a series of seminal victories in the Supreme Court defending individual rights; my colleague and dean, Kathleen Sullivan, who had argued many cases in the Court, and who had advised us early on about a First Amendment strategy; and finally, former solicitor general Charles Fried. - +
Fried was a special victory for our side. Every other former solicitor general was hired by the other side to defend Congress's power to give media @@ -8866,7 +8865,7 @@ believed in. He had been Ronald Reagan's chief lawyer in the Supreme Court. He had helped craft the line of cases that limited Congress's power in the context of the Commerce Clause. And while he had argued many positions in the Supreme Court that I personally disagreed with, his joining -the cause was a vote of confidence in our argument. +the cause was a vote of confidence in our argument.
The government, in defending the statute, had its collection of friends, as well. Significantly, however, none of these «friends» included @@ -8885,13 +8884,13 @@ Dr. Seuss's representatives, for example, argued that it was better for the Dr. Seuss estate to control what happened to Dr. Seuss's work— better than allowing it to fall into the public domain—because if this creativity were in the public domain, then people could use it to -«glorify drugs or to create pornography.»^[192] That was also the motive of the Gershwin estate, +«glorify drugs or to create pornography.»^[192] That was also the motive of the Gershwin estate, which defended its «protection» of the work of George Gershwin. They refuse, for example, to license Porgy and Bess to anyone who refuses to use African Americans in the -cast.^[193] That's their view of how this +cast.^[193] That's their view of how this part of American culture should be controlled, and they wanted this law to -help them effect that control. +help them effect that control.
This argument made clear a theme that is rarely noticed in this debate. When Congress decides to extend the term of existing copyrights, Congress is @@ -8911,7 +8910,7 @@ would also mean that there was no limit to Congress's power to play favorites, through copyright, with who has the right to speak. Between February and October, there was little I did beyond preparing for this case. Early on, as I said, I set the strategy. -
+
The Supreme Court was divided into two important camps. One camp we called «the Conservatives.» The other we called «the Rest.» The Conservatives included Chief Justice Rehnquist, Justice @@ -8920,7 +8919,7 @@ had been the most consistent in limiting Congress's power. They were the five who had supported the Lopez/Morrison line of cases that said that an enumerated power had to be interpreted to assure that Congress's powers had limits. -
+
The Rest were the four Justices who had strongly opposed limits on Congress's power. These four—Justice Stevens, Justice Souter, Justice @@ -8939,7 +8938,7 @@ well-known intellectual property scholar) were cut from the same intellectual property cloth. We expected she would agree with the writings of her daughter: that Congress had the power in this context to do as it wished, even if what Congress wished made little sense. -
+
Close behind Justice Ginsburg were two justices whom we also viewed as unlikely allies, though possible surprises. Justice Souter strongly favored deference to Congress, as did Justice Breyer. But both were also very @@ -9005,18 +9004,18 @@ power to set terms. Going with the government would mean that terms would be effectively unlimited; going with us would give Congress a clear line to follow: Don't extend existing terms. The moots were an effective practice; I found ways to take every question back to this central idea. -
+
One moot was before the lawyers at Jones Day. Don Ayer was the skeptic. He had served in the Reagan Justice Department with Solicitor General Charles Fried. He had argued many cases before the Supreme Court. And in his review -of the moot, he let his concern speak: +of the moot, he let his concern speak:
«I'm just afraid that unless they really see the harm, they won't be willing to upset this practice that the government says has been a consistent practice for two hundred years. You have to make them see the harm—passionately get them to see the harm. For if they don't see that, then we haven't any chance of winning.» -
+
He may have argued many cases before this Court, I thought, but he didn't understand its soul. As a clerk, I had seen the Justices do the right @@ -9048,7 +9047,7 @@ When the Chief Justice called me to begin my argument, I began where I intended to stay: on the question of the limits on Congress's power. This was a case about enumerated powers, I said, and whether those enumerated powers had any limit. -
+
Justice O'Connor stopped me within one minute of my opening. The history was bothering her.
@@ -9083,7 +9082,7 @@ in our Copyright Clause claim hangs upon the empirical assertion about impeding progress. Our only argument is this is a structural limit necessary to assure that what would be an effectively perpetual term not be permitted under the copyright laws. -
+
That was a correct answer, but it wasn't the right answer. The right answer was instead that there was an obvious and profound harm. Any number of briefs had been written about it. He wanted to hear it. And here was the @@ -9107,7 +9106,7 @@ mr. lessig: We want the right to copy verbatim works that should be in the public domain and would be in the public domain but for a statute that cannot be justified under ordinary First Amendment analysis or under a proper reading of the limits built into the Copyright Clause. -

Things went better for us when the government gave its argument; for now the Court picked up on the core of our claim. As Justice Scalia asked Solicitor General Olson, @@ -9196,7 +9195,7 @@ hated at the start: I had failed to convince them that the issue here was important, and I had failed to recognize that however much I might hate a system in which the Court gets to pick the constitutional values that it will respect, that is the system we have. -
+
Justices Breyer and Stevens wrote very strong dissents. Stevens's opinion was crafted internal to the law: He argued that the tradition of intellectual property law should not support this unjustified extension of @@ -9206,7 +9205,7 @@ parallel—without explaining how the very same words in the Progress Clause could come to mean totally different things depending upon whether the words were about patents or copyrights. The Court let Justice Stevens's charge go unanswered. -
+
Justice Breyer's opinion, perhaps the best opinion he has ever written, was @@ -9229,7 +9228,7 @@ Prince. Defeat brings depression. They say it is a sign of health when depression gives way to anger. My anger came quickly, but it didn't cure the depression. This anger was of two sorts. -
+
It was first anger with the five «Conservatives.» It would have been one thing for them to have explained why the principle of Lopez didn't apply in this case. That wouldn't have @@ -9258,7 +9257,7 @@ consistent with their own principles. My anger with the Conservatives quickly yielded to anger with myself. For I had let a view of the law that I liked interfere with a view of the law as it is. -
+
Most lawyers, and most law professors, have little patience for idealism about courts in general and this Supreme Court in particular. Most have a much more pragmatic view. When Don Ayer said that this case would be won @@ -9284,10 +9283,10 @@ stood before hundreds of audiences trying to persuade; I have used passion in that effort to persuade; but I refused to stand before this audience and try to persuade with the passion I had used elsewhere. It was not the basis on which a court should decide the issue. -
+
Would it have been different if I had argued it differently? Would it have been different if Don Ayer had argued it? Or Charles Fried? Or Kathleen -Sullivan? +Sullivan?
My friends huddled around me to insist it would not. The Court was not ready, my friends insisted. This was a loss that was destined. It would take @@ -9304,7 +9303,7 @@ And even if I couldn't, then that doesn't excuse what happened in January. For at the start of this case, one of America's leading intellectual property professors stated publicly that my bringing this case was a mistake. «The Court is not ready,» Peter Jaszi said; this -issue should not be raised until it is. +issue should not be raised until it is.
After the argument and after the decision, Peter said to me, and publicly, @@ -9333,8 +9332,8 @@ creative ferment. The best responses were in the cartoons. There was a gaggle of hilarious images—of Mickey in jail and the like. The best, from my view of the case, was Ruben Bolling's, reproduced on the next page (Figur 13.1, “Tom the Dancing Bug cartoon”). The «powerful and wealthy» line is a bit -unfair. But the punch in the face felt exactly like that. -
Figur 13.1. Tom the Dancing Bug cartoon

+unfair. But the punch in the face felt exactly like that. +
Figur 13.1. Tom the Dancing Bug cartoon

The image that will always stick in my head is that evoked by the quote from The New York Times. That «grand experiment» we call the «public domain» is over? When I @@ -9343,7 +9342,7 @@ Constitution. Constitution a commitment to free culture. In the case that I fathered, the Supreme Court effectively renounced that commitment. A better lawyer would have made them see differently. -

^[179] +

^[179] There's a parallel here with pornography that is a bit hard to describe, but @@ -9358,41 +9357,41 @@ noncommercial speakers that the statute was found to exceed Congress's power. The same point could have been made about noncommercial publishers after the advent of the Internet. The Eric Eldreds of the world before the Internet were extremely few. Yet one would think it at least as important to -protect the Eldreds of the world as to protect noncommercial pornographers.
^[180] +protect the Eldreds of the world as to protect noncommercial pornographers.
^[180] - The full text is: «Sonny [Bono] wanted the term of copyright + The full text is: «Sonny [Bono] wanted the term of copyright protection to last forever. I am informed by staff that such a change would violate the Constitution. I invite all of you to work with me to strengthen our copyright laws in all of the ways available to us. As you know, there is also Jack Valenti's proposal for a term to last forever less one day. Perhaps the Committee may look at that next Congress,» 144 Cong. Rec. H9946, 9951-2 (October 7, 1998). -
^[181] +
^[181] Associated Press, «Disney Lobbying for Copyright Extension No Mickey Mouse Effort; Congress OKs Bill Granting Creators 20 More Years», Chicago Tribune, 17. oktober 1998, 22. -
^[182] +
^[182] Se Nick Brown, «Fair Use No More?: Copyright in the Information Age», tilgjengelig fra link #49. -
^[183] +
^[183] Alan K. Ota, «Disney in Washington: The Mouse That Roars», Congressional Quarterly This Week, 8. august 1990, tilgjengelig fra link #50. -
^[184] +
^[184] United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 564 (1995). -
^[185] +
^[185] United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000). -
^[186] +
^[186] If it is a principle about enumerated powers, then the principle carries @@ -9404,19 +9403,19 @@ the context of the Copyright Clause. Here, too, the government's interpretation would allow the government unending power to regulate copyrights—the limitation to «limited times» notwithstanding. -
^[187] +
^[187] Brief of the Nashville Songwriters Association, Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003) (No. 01-618), n.10, available at link #51. -
^[188] +
^[188] The figure of 2 percent is an extrapolation from the study by the Congressional Research Service, in light of the estimated renewal ranges. See Brief of Petitioners, Eldred v. Ashcroft, 7, available at link #52. -
^[189] +
^[189] See David G. Savage, «High Court Scene of Showdown on Copyright @@ -9424,7 +9423,7 @@ Law, Streitfeld, «Classic Movies, Songs, Books at Stake; Supreme Court Hears Arguments Today on Striking Down Copyright Extension,» Orlando Sentinel Tribune, 9 October 2002. -
^[190] +
^[190] Brief of Hal Roach Studios and Michael Agee as Amicus Curiae Supporting the @@ -9433,17 +9432,17 @@ v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. 186 (2003) (No. 01- 618), 12. See also Brief of Amicus Curiae filed on behalf of Petitioners by the Internet Archive, Eldred v. Ashcroft, available at link #53. -
^[191] +
^[191] Jason Schultz, «The Myth of the 1976 Copyright `Chaos' Theory», 20 December 2002, tilgjengelig fra link #54. -
^[192] +
^[192] Brief of Amici Dr. Seuss Enterprise et al., Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U.S. (2003) (No. 01-618), 19. -
^[193] +

^[193] Dinitia Smith, «Immortal Words, Immortal Royalties? Even Mickey Mouse @@ -9457,7 +9456,7 @@ finally over—fate would have it that I was giving a speech to technologists at Disney World.) This was a particularly long flight to my least favorite city. The drive into the city from Dulles was delayed because of traffic, so I opened up my computer and wrote an op-ed piece. -
+
It was an act of contrition. During the whole of the flight from San Francisco to Washington, I had heard over and over again in my head the same advice from Don Ayer: You need to make them see why it is important. And @@ -9485,7 +9484,7 @@ and obvious: Remove copyright where it is doing nothing except blocking access and the spread of knowledge. Leave it for as long as Congress allows for those works where its worth is at least $1. But for everything else, let the content go. -
+
The reaction to this idea was amazingly strong. Steve Forbes endorsed it in an editorial. I received an avalanche of e-mail and letters expressing support. When you focus the issue on lost creativity, people can see the @@ -9504,11 +9503,11 @@ marking content is not required, since no formality at all is required, it is often impossibly hard to locate copyright owners to ask permission to use or license their work. This system would lower these costs, by establishing at least one registry where copyright owners could be identified. -
+
As I described in chapter 10, formalities in copyright law were removed in 1976, when Congress followed the Europeans by abandoning any formal requirement -before a copyright is granted.^[194] The +before a copyright is granted.^[194] The Europeans are said to view copyright as a «natural right.» Natural rights don't need forms to exist. Traditions, like the Anglo-American tradition that required copyright owners to follow form if @@ -9521,7 +9520,7 @@ copyright policy. It is absurd especially for authors, because a world without formalities harms the creator. The ability to spread «Walt Disney creativity» is destroyed when there is no simple way to know what's protected and what's not. -
+
The fight against formalities achieved its first real victory in Berlin in 1908. International copyright lawyers amended the Berne Convention in 1908, to require copyright terms of life plus fifty years, as well as the @@ -9583,7 +9582,7 @@ owner. And like a car, there's no way to buy and sell creative property with confidence unless there is some simple way to authenticate who is the author and what rights he has. Simple transactions are destroyed in a world without formalities. Complex, expensive, lawyer transactions -take their place. +take their place.
This was the understanding of the problem with the Sonny Bono Act that we tried to demonstrate to the Court. This was the part it didn't @@ -9633,7 +9632,7 @@ fifty years after a work was published. Based upon historical data, that system would move up to 98 percent of commercial work, commercial work that no longer had a commercial life, into the public domain within fifty years. What do you think? -
+
Da Steve Forbes støttet idéen, begynte enkelte i Washington å følge med. Mange kontaktet meg med tips til representanter som kan være villig til å introdusere en Eldred-lov. og jeg hadde noen få som foreslo direkte at de @@ -9645,7 +9644,7 @@ lov. Det p opphavsretter. I mai 2003 så det ut som om loven skulle være introdusert. 16. mai, postet jeg på Eldred Act-bloggen, «vi er nære». Det oppstod en generell reaksjon i blogg-samfunnet om at noe godt kunne skje -her. +her.
But at this stage, the lobbyists began to intervene. Jack Valenti and the MPAA general counsel came to the congresswoman's office to give the view of @@ -9706,7 +9705,7 @@ Mickey Mouses of the world, it is possible still to understand why the law favors Hollywood: Most people don't recognize the reasons for limiting copyright terms; it is thus still possible to see good faith within the resistance. -
+
But when the copyright owners oppose a proposal such as the Eldred Act, then, finally, there is an example that lays bare the naked selfinterest driving this war. This act would free an extraordinary range of content that @@ -9714,7 +9713,7 @@ is otherwise unused. It wouldn't interfere with any copyright owner's desire to exercise continued control over his content. It would simply liberate what Kevin Kelly calls the «Dark Content» that fills archives around the world. So when the warriors oppose a change like this, we should -ask one simple question: +ask one simple question:
Hva ønsker denne industrien egentlig?
@@ -9740,7 +9739,7 @@ tied to the Internet could somehow be quashed. Just as RCA feared the competition of FM, they fear the competition of a public domain connected to a public that now has the means to create with it and to share its own creation. -
+
Det som er vanskelig å forstå er hvorfor folket innehar dette synet. Det er som om loven gjorde at flymaskiner tok seg inn på annen manns eiendom. MPAA står side om side med Causbyene og krever at deres fjerne og ubrukelige @@ -9754,7 +9753,7 @@ the Internet. The consequence will be an increasing society.» The past can be cultivated only if you can identify the owner and gain permission to build upon his work. The future will be controlled by this dead (and often unfindable) hand of the past. -

^[194] +

^[194] Until the 1908 Berlin Act of the Berne Convention, national copyright @@ -9793,7 +9792,7 @@ av dem $25 afrikansk stat råd til medisinen for det store flertall av sine innbyggere: $15 000 er tredve ganger brutto nasjonalprodukt pr. innbygger i Zimbabwe. Med slike priser er disse medisinene fullstendig -utilgjengelig.^[195] +utilgjengelig.^[195]
@@ -9826,12 +9825,12 @@ en annen nasjons marked med godkjenning fra patenteieren. For eksempel, hvis medisinen var solgt i India, så kunne den bli importert inn til Afrika fra India. Dette kalles «parallellimport» og er generelt tillatt i internasjonal handelslovgivning, og spesifikt tillatt i den -europeiske union.^[196] +europeiske union.^[196]
Men USA var imot lovendringen. Og de nøyde seg ikke med å være imot. Som International Intellectual Property Association karakteriserte det, «Myndighetene i USA presset Sør-Afrika … til å ikke tillate -tvungen lisensiering eller parallellimport»^[197] Gjennom kontoret til USAs handelsrepresentant +tvungen lisensiering eller parallellimport»^[197] Gjennom kontoret til USAs handelsrepresentant (USTR), ba myndighetene Sør-Afrika om å endre loven—og for å legge press bak den forespørselen, listet USTR i 1998 opp Sør-Afrika som et land som burde vurderes for handelsrestriksjoner. Samme år gikk mer enn førti @@ -9842,7 +9841,7 @@ ved patenter. Kravet fra disse myndighetene, med USA i spissen, var at Sør-Afrika skulle respektere disse patentene på samme måte som alle andre patenter, uavhengig av eventuell effekt på behandlingen av AIDS i -Sør-Afrika.^[198] +Sør-Afrika.^[198]
Vi bør sette intervensjonen til USA i sammenheng. Det er ingen tvil om at patenter ikke er den viktigste årsaken til at Afrikanere ikke har tilgang @@ -9869,7 +9868,7 @@ selskapene betydelig.
I stedet var argumentet til fordel for restriksjoner på denne flyten av informasjon, som var nødvendig for å redde millioner av liv, et argument om -eiendoms ukrenkelighet.^[199] Det var på +eiendoms ukrenkelighet.^[199] Det var på grunn av at «intellektuell eiendom» ville bli krenket at disse medisinene ikke skulle flomme inn til Afrika. Det var prinsippet om viktigheten av «intellektuell eiendom» som fikk disse @@ -9934,7 +9933,7 @@ ekstremisme. En slags eiendomsfundamentalisme, uten grunnlag i v tradisjon, hersker nå i vår kultur—sært, og med konsekvenser mer alvorlig for spredningen av idéer og kultur enn nesten enhver annen politisk enkeltavgjørelse vi som demokrati kan fatte. -
+
En enkel idé blender oss, og under dekke av mørket skjer mye som de fleste av oss ville avvist hvis vi hadde fulgt med. Så ukritisk aksepterer vi @@ -9958,9 +9957,9 @@ innholdskrigen selv hadde fordeler av et mer balansert ideal. Hykleriet rår. Men i en by som Washington blir ikke hykleriet en gang lagt merke til. Mektige lobbyister, kompliserte problemer og MTV-oppmerksomhetsspenn gir en «perfekt storm» for fri kultur. -
+
I august 2003 brøt en kamp ut i USA om en avgjørelse fra World Intellectual -Property Organiation om å avlyse et møte.^[200] På forespørsel fra en lang rekke med interressenter hadde WIPO +Property Organiation om å avlyse et møte.^[200] På forespørsel fra en lang rekke med interressenter hadde WIPO bestemt å avholde et møte for å diskutere «åpne og samarbeidende prosjekter for å skape goder for felleskapet». Disse prosjektene som hadde lyktes i å produsere goder for fellesskapet uten å basere seg @@ -9976,9 +9975,9 @@ inkludert Amersham Biosciences, AstraZeneca, Aventis, Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Hoffmann-La Roche, Glaxo-SmithKline, IBM, Motorola, Novartis, Pfizer, og Searle.) Det inkluderte Globalt posisjonssystem (GPS) som Ronald Reagen frigjorde tidlig på 1980-tallet. Og det inkluderte «åpen -kildekode og fri programvare». - -
+kildekode og fri programvare». + +
Formålet med møtet var å vurdere denne rekken av prosjekter fra et felles perspektiv: at ingen av disse prosjektene hadde som grunnlag immateriell ekstremisme. I stedet, hos alle disse, ble immaterielle rettigheter @@ -9986,7 +9985,7 @@ balansert med avtaler om begrensninger på hvordan proprietære krav kan bli brukt.
Dermed var, fra perspektivet i denne boken, denne konferansen -ideell.^[201] Prosjektene innenfor temaet var +ideell.^[201] Prosjektene innenfor temaet var både kommersielle og ikkekommersielle verker. De involverte i hovedsak vitenskapen, men fra mange perspektiver. Og WIPO var et ideelt sted for denne diskusjonen, siden WIPO var den fremstående internasjonale aktør som @@ -10037,8 +10036,8 @@ grad skiftet sitt fokus til GNU/Linux-operativsystemet, det mest ber biten av «fri programvare»—og IBM er helt klart en kommersiell aktør. Dermed er det å støtte «fri programvare» ikke å motsette seg kommersielle aktører. Det er i stedet å støtte en måte -å drive programvareutvikling som er forskjellig fra Microsofts.^[202] - +å drive programvareutvikling som er forskjellig fra Microsofts.^[202] +
Mer viktig for våre formål, er at å støtte «åpen kildekode og fri @@ -10063,8 +10062,8 @@ bruker sine lobbyister til ganske riktig, det er akkurat dette som i følge rapporter hadde skjedd. I følge Jonathan Krim i Washington Post, lyktes Microsofts lobbyister i å få USAs myndigheter til å legge ned veto mot et -slikt møte.^[203] Og uten støtte fra USA ble -møtet avlyst. +slikt møte.^[203] Og uten støtte fra USA ble +møtet avlyst.
Jeg klandrer ikke Microsoft for å gjøre det de kan for å fremme sine egne interesser i samsvar med loven. Og lobbyvirksomhet mot myndighetene er @@ -10114,7 +10113,7 @@ tradisjon. N så er ikke det uforenelig med målene til eiendomssystemet. Det er heller tvert i mot, akkurat hva eiendomssysstemet er ment å oppnå, at individer har retten til å bestemme hva de vil gjøre med sin -eiendom. +eiendom.
Når Ms. Boland sier at det er noe galt med et møte «som har som sitt @@ -10134,9 +10133,9 @@ sikre at landeier i systemet ikke svekke f og eiendomene som de kontrollerte til det frie markedet. Føydalismen var avhengig av maksimal kontroll og konsentrasjon. Det sloss mot enhver frihet som kunne forstyrre denne kontrollen. -
+
Som Peter Drahos og John Braithwaite beskriver, dette er nøyaktig det valget -vi nå gjør om immaterielle rettigheter.^[204] +vi nå gjør om immaterielle rettigheter.^[204] Vi kommer til å få et informasjonssamfunn. Så mye er sikkert. Vårt eneste valg nå er hvorvidt dette informasjonssamfunnet skal være fritt eller føydalt. Trenden er @@ -10194,7 +10193,7 @@ sannheten. Det kan v mer enn å tjene de mektigste interesser. Det kan være galskap å argumentere for å bevare en tradisjon som har vært en del av vår tradisjon for mesteparten av vår historie—fri kultur. -
+
Hvis dette er galskap, så la det være mer gærninger. Snart. Det finnes øyeblikk av håp i denne kampen. Og øyeblikk som overrasker. Da FCC vurderte mindre strenge eierskapsregler, som ville ytterligere konsentrere @@ -10240,12 +10239,12 @@ evnen til
Hvis vi var Akilles, så ville dette være vår hæl. Dette ville være stedet for våre tragedie. -
+
Mens jeg skriver disse avsluttende ordene, er nyhetene fylt med historier om -at RIAA saksøker nesten tre hundre individer.^[205] Eminem har nettopp blitt saksøkt for å ha «samplet» -noen andres musikk.^[206] Historien om +at RIAA saksøker nesten tre hundre individer.^[205] Eminem har nettopp blitt saksøkt for å ha «samplet» +noen andres musikk.^[206] Historien om hvordan Bob Dylan har «stjålet» fra en japansk forfatter har -nettopp gått verden over.^[207] En på +nettopp gått verden over.^[207] En på innsiden i Hollywood—som insisterer på at han må forbli anonym—rapporterer «en utrolig samtale med disse studiofolkene. De har fantastisk [gammelt] innhold som de ville elske å bruke, men det kan @@ -10255,14 +10254,14 @@ kreve hauger med advokater for Kongressrepresentanter snakker om å gi datavirus politimyndighet for å ta ned datamaskiner som antas å bryte loven. Universiteter truer med å utvise ungdommer som bruker en datamaskin for å dele innhold. -
+
I mens på andre siden av Atlanteren har BBC nettopp annonsert at de vil bygge opp et «kreativt arkiv» som britiske borgere kan laste -ned BBC-innhold fra, og rippe, mikse og brenne det ut.^[208] Og i Brasil har kulturministeren, Gilberto Gil, i +ned BBC-innhold fra, og rippe, mikse og brenne det ut.^[208] Og i Brasil har kulturministeren, Gilberto Gil, i seg selv en folkehelt i brasiliansk musikk, slått seg sammen med Creative Commons for å gi ut innhold og frie lisenser i dette latinamerikanske -landet.^[209] Jeg har fortalt en mørk +landet.^[209] Jeg har fortalt en mørk historie. Sannheten er mer blandet. En teknologi har gitt oss mer frihet. Sakte begynner noen å forstå at denne friheten trenger ikke å bety anarki. Vi kan få med oss fri kultur inn i det tjueførste århundre, uten at artister @@ -10276,7 +10275,7 @@ snart, hvis dette potensialet skal noen gang bli realisert. -

^[195] +

^[195] Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, «Final Report: Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy» (London, 2002), @@ -10284,12 +10283,12 @@ tilgjengelig fra
^[196] +
^[196] Se Peter Drahos og John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? (New York: The New Press, 2003), -37. -
^[197] +37. +
^[197] International Intellectual Property Institute (IIPI), Patent @@ -10300,13 +10299,13 @@ account of the struggle over South Africa, see Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, House Committee on Government Reform, H. Rep., 1st sess., Ser. No. 106-126 (22 July 1999), 150–57 (statement of James Love). -
^[198] +
^[198] International Intellectual Property Institute (IIPI), Patent Protection and Access to HIV/AIDS Pharmaceuticals in Sub-Saharan Africa, en rapport forberedt for the World Intellectual Property -Organization (Washington, D.C., 2000), 15.
^[199] +Organization (Washington, D.C., 2000), 15.
^[199] @@ -10323,7 +10322,7 @@ the HIV/AIDS Crisis: Finding the Proper Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights and Compassion, a Synopsis,» Widener Law Symposium Journal (Spring 2001): 175. -
^[200] +
^[200] Jonathan Krim, «The Quiet War over Open-Source», Washington Post, august 2003, E1, tilgjengelig fra @@ -10334,10 +10333,10 @@ tilgjengelig fra «U.S. Official Opposes `Open Source' Talks at WIPO», National Journal's Technology Daily, 19. august 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #61. -
^[201] +
^[201] Jeg bør nevne at jeg var en av folkene som ba WIPO om dette møtet. -
^[202] +
^[202] Microsofts posisjon om åpen kildekode og fri programvare er mer @@ -10354,15 +10353,15 @@ Public Policy Research, 2002), 69, tilgjengelig fra The Commercial Software Model, diskusjon ved New York University Stern School of Business (3. mai 2001), tilgjengelig fra link #63. -
^[203] +
^[203] Krim, «The Quiet War over Open-Source», tilgjengelig fra link #64. -
^[204] +
^[204] Se Drahos with Braithwaite, Information Feudalism, -210–20. -
^[205] +210–20. +
^[205] John Borland, «RIAA Sues 261 File Swappers», CNET News.com, @@ -10377,23 +10376,23 @@ Calif., 12-Year-Old Girl in N.Y. Among Defendants Washington Post, 10. september 2003, E1; Katie Dean, «Schoolgirl Settles with RIAA», Wired News, 10. september 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #67. -
^[206] +
^[206] Jon Wiederhorn, «Eminem Gets Sued … by a Little Old Lady», mtv.com, 17. september 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #68. -
^[207] +
^[207] Kenji Hall, Associated Press, «Japanese Book May Be Inspiration for Dylan Songs», Kansascity.com, 9. juli 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #69. -
^[208] +
^[208] «BBC Plans to Open Up Its Archive to the Public», pressemelding fra BBC, 24. august 2003, tilgjengelig fra link #70. -
^[209] +
^[209] «Creative Commons and Brazil», Creative Commons Weblog, @@ -10489,7 +10488,7 @@ amount of privacy. That privacy is guaranteed to us by friction. Not by law (there is no law protecting «privacy» in public places), and in many places, not by norms (snooping and gossip are just fun), but instead, by the costs that friction imposes on anyone who would want to spy. -
+
Enter the Internet, where the cost of tracking browsing in particular has become quite tiny. If you're a customer at Amazon, then as you browse the pages, Amazon collects the data about what you've looked at. You know this @@ -10497,7 +10496,7 @@ because at the side of the page, there's a list of viewed» pages. Now, because of the architecture of the Net and the function of cookies on the Net, it is easier to collect the data than not. The friction has disappeared, and hence any «privacy» -protected by the friction disappears, too. +protected by the friction disappears, too.
Amazon, of course, is not the problem. But we might begin to worry about libraries. If you're one of those crazy lefties who thinks that people @@ -10511,7 +10510,7 @@ the friction-induced privacy of yesterday disappears. It is this reality that explains the push of many to define «privacy» on the Internet. It is the recognition that technology can remove what friction before gave us that leads many to push -for laws to do what friction did.^[210] And +for laws to do what friction did.^[210] And whether you're in favor of those laws or not, it is the pattern that is important here. We must take affirmative steps to secure a kind of freedom that was passively provided before. A change in technology now forces those @@ -10523,8 +10522,8 @@ movement. When computers with software were first made available commercially, the software—both the source code and the binaries— was free. You couldn't run a program written for a Data General machine on an IBM machine, so Data General and IBM didn't care much -about controlling their software. -
+about controlling their software. +
Dette var verden Richard Stallman ble født inn i, og mens han var forsker ved MIT, lærte han til å elske samfunnet som utviklet seg når en var fri til å utforske og fikle med programvaren som kjørte på datamaskiner. Av den @@ -10555,13 +10554,13 @@ Thus, the practice of proprietary code began to spread, and by the early free software had been erased by a change in the economics of computing. And as he believed, if he did nothing about it, then the freedom to change and share software would be fundamentally weakened. -
+
Derfor, i 1984, startet Stallmann på et prosjekt for å bygge et fritt operativsystem, slik i hvert fall en flik av fri programvare skulle overleve. Dette var starten på GNU-prosjektet, som «Linux»-kjernen til Linus Torvalds senere ble lagt til i for å -produsere GNU/Linux-operativsystemet. - +produsere GNU/Linux-operativsystemet. +
Stallman's technique was to use copyright law to build a world of software that must be kept free. Software licensed under the Free Software @@ -10634,7 +10633,7 @@ that work to the Public Library of Science. That work is then subject to peer review. If accepted, the work is then deposited in a public, electronic archive and made permanently available for free. PLoS also sells a print version of its work, but the copyright for the print journal does not -inhibit the right of anyone to redistribute the work for free. +inhibit the right of anyone to redistribute the work for free.
This is one of many such efforts to restore a freedom taken for granted before, but now threatened by changing technology and markets. There's no @@ -10642,10 +10641,10 @@ doubt that this alternative competes with the traditional publishers and their efforts to make money from the exclusive distribution of content. But competition in our tradition is presumptively a good—especially when it helps spread knowledge and science. -
16.1.2. Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
+

16.1.2. Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Den samme strategien kan brukes på kultur, som et svar på den økende kontrollen som gjennomføres gjennom lov og teknologi. -
+
Enter the Creative Commons. The Creative Commons is a nonprofit corporation established in Massachusetts, but with its home at Stanford University. Its aim is to build a layer of reasonable copyright on top @@ -10698,7 +10697,7 @@ getting legislators to help build a public domain. Our aim is to build a movement of consumers and producers of content («content conducers,» as attorney Mia Garlick calls them) who help build the public domain and, by their work, demonstrate the importance of the public -domain to other creativity. +domain to other creativity.

The aim is not to fight the «All Rights Reserved» sorts. The aim is to complement them. The problems that the law creates for us as a @@ -10738,8 +10737,8 @@ All, made an electronic version of his book free on-line under a Creative Commons license after the book went out of print. He then monitored used book store prices for the book. As predicted, as the number of downloads increased, the used book price for his book increased, as well. - -

+ +

These are examples of using the Commons to better spread proprietary content. I believe that is a wonderful and common use of the Commons. There are others who use Creative Commons licenses for other reasons. Many who use @@ -10752,9 +10751,9 @@ others. Because the legal costs of sampli (Walter Leaphart, manager of the rap group Public Enemy, which was born sampling the music of others, has stated that he does not «allow» Public Enemy to sample anymore, because the legal costs -are so high^[211]), these artists release +are so high^[211]), these artists release into the creative environment content that others can build upon, so that -their form of creativity might grow. +their form of creativity might grow.

Finally, there are many who mark their content with a Creative Commons license just because they want to express to others the importance of @@ -10787,7 +10786,7 @@ project does not compete with copyright; it complements it. Its aim is not to defeat the rights of authors, but to make it easier for authors and creators to exercise their rights more flexibly and cheaply. That difference, we believe, will enable creativity to spread more easily. -

16.2. Dem, snart

We will not reclaim a free culture by individual action alone. It will also take important reforms of laws. We have a long way to go before the politicians will listen to these ideas and implement these reforms. But @@ -10832,7 +10831,7 @@ the scope of copyright's rule, getting permission is a necessary step for any work that builds upon our past. And thus, the lack of formalities forces many into silence where they otherwise could speak.

-The law should therefore change this requirement^[212]—but it should not change it by going back to the old, broken +The law should therefore change this requirement^[212]—but it should not change it by going back to the old, broken system. We should require formalities, but we should establish a system that will create the incentives to minimize the burden of these formalities.

@@ -10908,7 +10907,7 @@ published without a copyright notice, the consequence of that failure need not be that the copyright is lost. The consequence could instead be that anyone has the right to use this work, until the copyright owner complains and demonstrates that it is his work and he doesn't give -permission.^[213] The meaning of an unmarked +permission.^[213] The meaning of an unmarked work would therefore be «use unless someone complains.» If someone does complain, then the obligation would be to stop using the work in any new work from then on though no penalty would attach for existing @@ -10959,7 +10958,7 @@ of renewal every five years. That seemed radical enough at the time. But after we lost Eldred v. Ashcroft, the proposals became even more radical. The Economist endorsed a proposal for a -fourteen-year copyright term.^[214] Others +fourteen-year copyright term.^[214] Others have proposed tying the term to the term for patents.

I agree with those who believe that we need a radical change in copyright's @@ -10996,10 +10995,10 @@ Especially if the maximum term is long, the copyright owner should be required to signal periodically that he wants the protection continued. This need not be an onerous burden, but there is no reason this monopoly protection has to be granted for free. On average, it takes ninety minutes -for a veteran to apply for a pension.^[215] +for a veteran to apply for a pension.^[215] If we make veterans suffer that burden, I don't see why we couldn't require authors to spend ten minutes every fifty years to file a single form. - +

@@ -11026,7 +11025,7 @@ Uten tvil vil ekstremistene kalle disse id enn vernetiden under Richard Nixon. hvor «radikalt» kan det være å be om en mer sjenerøs opphavsrettighet enn da Richard Nixon var president? -

16.2.3. 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

As I observed at the beginning of this book, property law originally granted property owners the right to control their property from the ground to the heavens. The airplane came along. The scope of property rights quickly @@ -11044,15 +11043,15 @@ movie is not

Congress granted the beginnings of this right in 1870, when it expanded the exclusive right of copyright to include a right to control translations and -dramatizations of a work.^[216] The courts +dramatizations of a work.^[216] The courts have expanded it slowly through judicial interpretation ever since. This expansion has been commented upon by one of the law's greatest judges, Judge -Benjamin Kaplan. +Benjamin Kaplan.

So inured have we become to the extension of the monopoly to a large range of so-called derivative works, that we no longer sense the oddity of accepting such an enlargement of copyright while yet intoning the -abracadabra of idea and expression.^[217] +abracadabra of idea and expression.^[217]

I think it's time to recognize that there are airplanes in this field and the expansiveness of these rights of derivative use no longer make @@ -11066,7 +11065,7 @@ John Grisham's right to sell the movie rights to his latest novel (or at least I'm willing to assume it does); but it does not make sense for that right to run for the same term as the underlying copyright. The derivative right could be important in inducing creativity; it is not important long -after the creative work is done. +after the creative work is done.

Scope: Likewise should the scope of derivative rights be narrowed. Again, there are some cases in which derivative rights are @@ -11078,7 +11077,7 @@ lines. It no longer makes sense for lawyers to negotiate the lines. Think about all the creative possibilities that digital technologies enable; now imagine pouring molasses into the machines. That's what this general requirement of permission does to the creative process. Smothers it. -

This was the point that Alben made when describing the making of the Clint Eastwood CD. While it makes sense to require negotiation for foreseeable derivative rights—turning a book into a movie, or a poem into a @@ -11087,7 +11086,7 @@ unforeseeable. Here, a statutory right would make much more sense.

In each of these cases, the law should mark the uses that are protected, and the presumption should be that other uses are not protected. This is the -reverse of the recommendation of my colleague Paul Goldstein.^[218] His view is that the law should be written so that +reverse of the recommendation of my colleague Paul Goldstein.^[218] His view is that the law should be written so that expanded protections follow expanded uses.

Goldstein's analysis would make perfect sense if the cost of the legal @@ -11187,7 +11186,7 @@ essentially on the Net; where everywhere you are—except maybe the desert or the Rockies—you can instantaneously be connected to the Internet. Imagine the Internet as ubiquitous as the best cell-phone service, where with the flip of a device, you are connected. -

In that world, it will be extremely easy to connect to services that give you access to content on the fly—such as Internet radio, content that is streamed to the user when the user demands. Here, then, is the critical @@ -11203,7 +11202,7 @@ money for the content they give access to. Already cell-phone services in Japan offer music (for a fee) streamed over cell phones (enhanced with plugs for headphones). The Japanese are paying for this content even though «free» content is available in the form of MP3s across the -Web.^[219] +Web.^[219]

@@ -11303,7 +11302,7 @@ eller p2p-teknologien som i dag skader innholdsleverand bør vi finne en relativt enkel måte å kompensere de som blir skadelidende.

The idea would be a modification of a proposal that has been floated by -Harvard law professor William Fisher.^[220] +Harvard law professor William Fisher.^[220] Fisher suggests a very clever way around the current impasse of the Internet. Under his plan, all content capable of digital transmission would (1) be marked with a digital watermark (don't worry about how easy it is to @@ -11312,7 +11311,7 @@ the content is marked, then entrepreneurs would develop (2) systems to monitor how many items of each content were distributed. On the basis of those numbers, then (3) artists would be compensated. The compensation would be paid for by (4) an appropriate tax. -

Fisher's proposal is careful and comprehensive. It raises a million questions, most of which he answers well in his upcoming book, Promises to Keep. The modification that I would make @@ -11324,8 +11323,8 @@ a transition between regimes. And it would require renewal after a period of years. If it continues to make sense to facilitate free exchange of content, supported through a taxation system, then it can be continued. If this form of protection is no longer necessary, then the system could lapse into the -old system of controlling access. -

+old system of controlling access. +

Fisher would balk at the idea of allowing the system to lapse. His aim is not just to ensure that artists are paid, but also to ensure that the system @@ -11335,7 +11334,7 @@ described were accomplished—in particular, the limits on derivative uses. A system that simply charges for access would not greatly burden semiotic democracy if there were few limitations on what one was allowed to do with the content itself. -

No doubt it would be difficult to calculate the proper measure of «harm» to an industry. But the difficulty of making that calculation would be outweighed by the benefit of facilitating @@ -11349,7 +11348,7 @@ though the labels have none of the costs of a CD to pay.) Apple's move was countered by Real Networks, offering music at just 79 cents a song. And no doubt there will be a great deal of competition to offer and sell music on-line. -

This competition has already occurred against the background of «free» music from p2p systems. As the sellers of cable television have known for thirty years, and the sellers of bottled water for @@ -11439,7 +11438,7 @@ betydningsfulle personene i historien til denne delen av loven. Mange trodde for eksempel at vår utfordring til lovforslaget om å utvide opphavsrettens vernetid var galskap. Mens bare tredve år siden mente den dominerende foreleser og utøver i opphavsrettsfeltet, Melville Nimmer, at den var -åpenbar.^[221] +åpenbar.^[221]

Min kritikk av rollen som advokater har spilt i denne debatten handler @@ -11449,7 +11448,7 @@ om v Økonomer er forventet å være gode til å forstå utgifter og inntekter. Men som oftest antar økonomene uten peiling på hvordan det juridiske systemet egentlig fungerer, at transaksjonskostnaden i det juridiske systemet er -lav.^[222] De ser et system som har +lav.^[222] De ser et system som har eksistert i hundrevis av år, og de antar at det fungerer slik grunnskolens samfunnsfagsundervisning lærte dem at det fungerer.

@@ -11480,7 +11479,7 @@ og dermed radikalt mer rettferdig. Men inntil en slik reform er gjennomført, bør vi som samfunn holde lover unna områder der vi vet den bare vil skade. Og det er nettopp det loven altfor ofte vil gjøre hvis for mye av vår kultur er lovregulert. -

Tenk på de fantastiske tingene ditt barn kan gjøre eller lage med digital teknologi—filmen, musikken, web-siden, bloggen. Eller tenk på de fantastiske tingene ditt fellesskap kunne få til med digital @@ -11500,7 +11499,7 @@ ikke? Vi burde spørre: «Hvorfor?». Vis meg hvorfor din regulering av kultur er nødvendig og vis meg hvordan reguleringen bidrar positivt. Før du kan vise meg begge, holde advokatene din unna. -

^[210] +

^[210] @@ -11511,54 +11510,54 @@ par. 6–18, available at The Naked Crowd: Reclaiming Security and Freedom in an Anxious Age (New York: Random House, 2004) (mapping tradeoffs between -technology and privacy).

^[211] +technology and privacy).

^[211] Willful Infringement: A Report from the Front Lines of the Real Culture Wars (2003), produced by Jed Horovitz, directed by Greg Hittelman, a Fiat Lucre production, available at link #72. -

^[212] +

^[212] The proposal I am advancing here would apply to American works only. Obviously, I believe it would be beneficial for the same idea to be adopted -by other countries as well.

^[213] +by other countries as well.

^[213] There would be a complication with derivative works that I have not solved here. In my view, the law of derivatives creates a more complicated system than is justified by the marginal incentive it creates. -

^[214] +

^[214] «A Radical Rethink», Economist, 366:8308 (25. januar 2003): 15, tilgjengelig fra link #74. -

^[215] +

^[215] Department of Veterans Affairs, Veteran's Application for Compensation and/or Pension, VA Form 21-526 (OMB Approved No. 2900-0001), tilgjengelig fra link #75. -

^[216] +

^[216] Benjamin Kaplan, An Unhurried View of Copyright (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), 32. -

^[217] +

^[217] Ibid., 56. -

^[218] +

^[218] Paul Goldstein, Copyright's Highway: From Gutenberg to the Celestial Jukebox (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), -187–216. -

^[219] +187–216. +

^[219] For eksempel, se, «Music Media Watch», The J@pan Inc. Newsletter, 3 April 2002, tilgjengelig fra link #76. -

^[220] +

^[220] William Fisher, Digital Music: Problems and Possibilities (sist revidert: 10. oktober @@ -11588,16 +11587,16 @@ er ganske likt forslaget til Richard Stallman n motsetning til Fishers forslag, ville Stallmanns forslag ikke betale kunstnere proposjonalt, selv om mer populære artister ville få mer betalt enn mindre populære. Slik det er typisk med Stallman, la han fram sitt -forslag omtrent ti år før dagens debatt. Se link #85. - - -

^[221] +forslag omtrent ti år før dagens debatt. Se link #85. + + +

^[221] Lawrence Lessig, «Copyright's First Amendment» (Melville B. Nimmer Memorial Lecture), UCLA law Review 48 (2001): 1057, 1069–70. -

^[222] +

^[222] Et godt eksempel er arbeidet til professor Stan Liebowitz. Liebowitz bør få ros for sin nøye gjennomgang av data om opphavsrettsbrudd, som fikk ham til @@ -11612,7 +11611,7 @@ Industry? Liebowitz er ekstremt verdifull i sin estimering av effekten av fildelingsteknologi. Etter mitt syn underestimerer han forøvrig kostnaden til det juridiske system. Se, for eksempel, -Rethinking, 174–76. +Rethinking, 174–76.

Notater

I denne teksten er det referanser til lenker på verdensveven. Og som alle som har forsøkt å bruke nettet vet, så vil disse lenkene være svært @@ -11628,7 +11627,7 @@ Denne boken er produktet av en lang og s da jeg leste om Eric Eldreds krig for å sørge for at bøker forble frie. Eldreds innsats bidro til å lansere en bevegelse, fri kultur-bevegelsen, og denne boken er tilegnet ham. -

Jeg fikk veiledning på ulike steder fra venner og akademikere, inkludert Glenn Brown, Peter DiCola, Jennifer Mnookin, Richard Posner, Mark Rose og Kathleen Sullivan. Og jeg fikk korreksjoner og veiledning fra mange @@ -11679,4 +11678,4 @@ Til slutt, og for evig, er jeg Bettina takknemlig, som alltid har insistert på at det ville være endeløs lykke utenfor disse kampene, og som alltid har hatt rett. Denne trege eleven er som alltid takknemlig for hennes evigvarende tålmodighet og kjærlighet. -

Indeks

A

ABC, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Marked: Konsentrasjon

Adobe eBook Reader, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

Adromeda, Corrupting Citizens

Africa, medications for HIV patients in, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

Agee, Michael, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

agricultural patents, Piratvirksomhet I

Aibo robothund, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

akademiske tidsskrifter, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

Akerlof, George, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Alben, Alex, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Constraining Innovators, Constraining Innovators, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

alcohol prohibition, Corrupting Citizens

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), Arkitektur og lov: Makt

All in the Family, Marked: Konsentrasjon

Allen, Paul, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

Amazon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

American Association of Law Libraries, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

American Graphophone Company, Innspilt musikk

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Anello, Douglas, Kabel-TV

antiretroviral drugs, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

archive.org, Kapittel ni: Samlere

(se også Internett-arkivet)

Aristoteles, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

arkitektur, begrensninger med opphav i, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

arkiver, digitale, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Sammen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Armstrong, Edwin Howard, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, Kapittel tolv: Skader, Constraining Innovators

Arrow, Kenneth, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

artister

musikkindustriens betaling til, Kapittel tre: Kataloger, Radio, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
publicity rights on images of, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
retrospective compilations on, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

ASCAP, «Piratvirksomhet»

Asia, kommersiell piratvirksomhet i, Piratvirksomhet I, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen

AT&T, Introduksjon

Ayer, Don, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

B

Bacon, Francis, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Barish, Stephanie, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Barlow, Joel, Introduksjon

Barnes & Noble, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde

Barry, Hank, Constraining Innovators

BBC, Konklusjon

Beatles, Innspilt musikk

Beckett, Thomas, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Bell, Alexander Graham, Introduksjon

Berlin Act (1908), Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

Berman, Howard L., Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators

Bern-konvensjonen (1908), Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

Bernstein, Leonard, Piratvirksomhet II

Betamax, Piratvirksomhet II

biomedical research, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

Black, Jane, Piratvirksomhet II

BMG, Marked: Konsentrasjon

BMW, Constraining Innovators

Boies, David, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

bøker

totalt antall, Kapittel ni: Samlere

Bolling, Ruben, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bono, Mary, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bono, Sonny, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Boswell, James, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Boyle, James, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Braithwaite, John, Konklusjon

Branagh, Kenneth, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Brandeis, Louis D., Introduksjon, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Brasil, fri kultur i, Konklusjon

Breyer, Stephen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Brezhnev, Leonid, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, 5. Spark en masse advokater

Bromberg, Dan, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Brown, John Seely, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Buchanan, James, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bunyan, John, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Burdick, Quentin, Kabel-TV

Bush, George W., Constraining Creators

Edison, Thomas, Introduksjon

eiendomsrettigheter

lufttrafikk mot, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

Elektronisk forpost-stiftelsen (EFF), Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Corrupting Citizens

EMI, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Constraining Innovators

Erskine, Andrew, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

F

Fallows, James, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Fanning, Shawn, Piratvirksomhet II
Faraday, Michael, Introduksjon
Fisher, William, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Florida, Richard, «Piratvirksomhet»
Forbes, Steve, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
fotografering, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Fourneaux, Henri, Innspilt musikk, Innspilt musikk
Fox, William, Film
Free for All (Wayner), Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Fried, Charles, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Friedman, Milton, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

G

Garlick, Mia, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Gates, Bill, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Konklusjon
General Film Company, Film
Gershwin, George, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Gil, Gilberto, Konklusjon
GNU/Linux-operativsystemet, Piratvirksomhet I, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Goldstein, Paul, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Gracie Films, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne
Grisham, John, Innspilt musikk, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

H

Hal Roach Studios, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Hand, Learned, Radio
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Henry V, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Henry VIII, Konge av England, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Heston, Charlton, Kabel-TV
HIV/AIDS therapies, Konklusjon, Konklusjon
Hollings, Fritz, Constraining Innovators
Hummer Winblad, Constraining Innovators
Hummer, John, Constraining Innovators
Hyde, Rosel H., Kabel-TV

I

IBM, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Intel, Constraining Innovators, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Internet Explorer, Piratvirksomhet I
Iwerks, Ub, Kapittel en: Skaperne

J

Jaszi, Peter, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
jernbaneindustri, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett
Johnson, Lyndon, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Johnson, Samuel, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

K

Kaplan, Benjamin, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Kelly, Kevin, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Kennedy, John F., Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Constraining Innovators
Kittredge, Alfred, Innspilt musikk
kjørehastighet, begrensninger på, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Kodak Primer, The (Eastman), Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Kozinski, Alex, Piratvirksomhet II
Krim, Jonathan, Konklusjon
kringkastingsflagg, Film, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators
kunst, undergrunns, Constraining Creators

L

landeierskap, lufttrafikk og, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Laurel and Hardy Films, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
law schools, Corrupting Citizens
Leaphart, Walter, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Lear, Norman, Marked: Konsentrasjon
legal realist movement, Sammen
Licensing Act (1662), Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Liebowitz, Stan, Piratvirksomhet I, Piratvirksomhet II, 5. Spark en masse advokater
Linux-operativsystemet, Piratvirksomhet I, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Litman, Jessica, Introduksjon, Constraining Innovators
Lofgren, Zoe, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Lott, Trent, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
lovbestemte skader, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
Lovett, Lyle, Radio, Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Lucky Dog, The, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
lufttrafikk, landeierskap mot, Introduksjon, Introduksjon

M

Madonna, Radio, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Mansfield, William Murray, Lord, «Piratvirksomhet», «Piratvirksomhet», Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Marijuana Policy Project, Marked: Konsentrasjon

markedsføring, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Marked: Konsentrasjon

markedskonsentrasjon, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Constraining Innovators

Marx Brothers, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

McCain, John, Marked: Konsentrasjon

MGM, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Microsoft

Windows operating system of, Piratvirksomhet I

Milton, John, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

mobiltelefoner, musikk streamet via, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen

Morrison, Alan, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Movie Archive, Kapittel ni: Samlere

Moyers, Bill, Marked: Konsentrasjon

Müller, Paul Hermann, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

N

Nashville Songwriters Association, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
National Writers Union, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
NBC, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Needleman, Rafe, Constraining Innovators
Netanel, Neil Weinstock, Introduksjon, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Netscape, Piratvirksomhet I
Nimmer, David, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
normer, reguleringspåvirkning fra, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

O

O'Connor, Sandra Day, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Olafson, Steve, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Olson, Theodore B., Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Oppenheimer, Matt, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
originalism, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Orwell, George, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Kapittel ni: Samlere

P

Paramount Pictures, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Picker, Randal C., Film, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators
PLoS (Public Library of Science), Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Pogue, David, Forord, Forord
Politikk, (Aristotles), Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Promises to Keep (Fisher), 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Public Citizen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Public Enemy, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

Q

Quayle, Dan, Kapittel ni: Samlere

R

rap music, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Reagan, Ronald, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon
Real Networks, Constraining Innovators, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Rehnquist, William H., Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), Kapittel tre: Kataloger, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
Rise of the Creative Class, The (Florida), «Piratvirksomhet»
Roberts, Michael, Constraining Innovators
robothund, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Rogers, Fred, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Rose, Mark, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Takk til
RPI (Se Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI))
Rubenfeld, Jeb, Loven: Virkeområde
Russel, Phil, Innspilt musikk

S

Safire, William, Forord, Konklusjon

San Francisco Opera, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne

Sarnoff, David, Introduksjon

Schlafly, Phyllis, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Shakespeare, William, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Silent Sprint (Carson), Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Sony

Aibo robothund produsert av, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

Sony Pictures Entertainment, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Sousa, John Philip, Innspilt musikk

stålindustri, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Stallman, Richard, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

Stanford University, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

Star Wars, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne

Statute of Monopolies (1656), Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Stevens, Ted, Forord

Steward, Geoffrey, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Supermann-tegneserier, Kapittel en: Skaperne

Sutherland, Donald, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

T

Talbot, William, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Tatel, David, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Tauzin, Billy, Constraining Innovators
Taylor, Robert, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
tegnefilmer, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Kapittel en: Skaperne
Thurmond, Strom, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Tocqueville, Alexis de, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Torvalds, Linus, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Turner, Ted, Konklusjon
Twentieth Century Fox, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

U

Universal Music Group, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Constraining Innovators
Universal Pictures, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

V

Vaidhyanathan, Siva, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Film, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Sammen
Vanderbilt University, Kapittel ni: Samlere
veteranpensjoner, 2. Kortere vernetid
Vivendi Universal, Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators, Constraining Innovators
von Lohmann, Fred, Corrupting Citizens

W

Warner Brothers, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Warner Music Group, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Warren, Samuel D., Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Wayner, Peter, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Webster, Noah, Introduksjon
Wellcome Trust, Konklusjon
Wells, H. G., Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Kapittel elleve: Chimera
Windows, Piratvirksomhet I
Winer, Dave, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Winick, Judd, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Kapittel en: Skaperne
WJOA, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Worldcom, Constraining Creators
WRC, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Wright-brødrene, Introduksjon

Y

Yanofsky, Dave, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Z

Zimmerman, Edwin, Kabel-TV
Zittrain, Jonathan, «Piratvirksomhet», Loven: Virkeområde

Indeks

A

ABC, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Marked: Konsentrasjon

Adobe eBook Reader, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

Adromeda, Corrupting Citizens

Africa, medications for HIV patients in, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

Agee, Michael, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

agricultural patents, Piratvirksomhet I

Aibo robothund, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

akademiske tidsskrifter, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

Akerlof, George, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Alben, Alex, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Constraining Innovators, Constraining Innovators, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

alcohol prohibition, Corrupting Citizens

Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), Arkitektur og lov: Makt

All in the Family, Marked: Konsentrasjon

Allen, Paul, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

Amazon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

American Association of Law Libraries, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

American Graphophone Company, Innspilt musikk

Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Anello, Douglas, Kabel-TV

antiretroviral drugs, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

archive.org, Kapittel ni: Samlere

(se også Internett-arkivet)

Aristoteles, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

arkitektur, begrensninger med opphav i, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

arkiver, digitale, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Sammen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Armstrong, Edwin Howard, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, Kapittel tolv: Skader, Constraining Innovators

Arrow, Kenneth, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

artister

musikkindustriens betaling til, Kapittel tre: Kataloger, Radio, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
publicity rights on images of, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
retrospective compilations on, Kapittel åtte: Omformere, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

ASCAP, «Piratvirksomhet»

Asia, kommersiell piratvirksomhet i, Piratvirksomhet I, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen

AT&T, Introduksjon

Ayer, Don, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

B

Bacon, Francis, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Barish, Stephanie, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Barlow, Joel, Introduksjon

Barnes & Noble, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde

Barry, Hank, Constraining Innovators

BBC, Konklusjon

Beatles, Innspilt musikk

Beckett, Thomas, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Bell, Alexander Graham, Introduksjon

Berlin Act (1908), Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

Berman, Howard L., Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators

Bern-konvensjonen (1908), Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II

Bernstein, Leonard, Piratvirksomhet II

Betamax, Piratvirksomhet II

biomedical research, Konklusjon, Konklusjon

Black, Jane, Piratvirksomhet II

BMG, Marked: Konsentrasjon

BMW, Constraining Innovators

Boies, David, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

bøker

totalt antall, Kapittel ni: Samlere

Bolling, Ruben, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bono, Mary, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bono, Sonny, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Boswell, James, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Boyle, James, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Braithwaite, John, Konklusjon

Branagh, Kenneth, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Brandeis, Louis D., Introduksjon, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Brasil, fri kultur i, Konklusjon

Breyer, Stephen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Brezhnev, Leonid, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, 5. Spark en masse advokater

Bromberg, Dan, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Brown, John Seely, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Buchanan, James, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Bunyan, John, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Burdick, Quentin, Kabel-TV

Bush, George W., Constraining Creators

C

Camp Chaos, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
CARP (Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel), Constraining Innovators
Carson, Rachel, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett
Casablanca, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Causby, Thomas Lee, Introduksjon, Kapittel tolv: Skader, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II, Konklusjon
Causby, Tinie, Introduksjon, Kapittel tolv: Skader, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II, Konklusjon
CBS, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
chimeras, Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Kapittel elleve: Chimera
Christensen, Clayton M., Piratvirksomhet II, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Clark, Kim B., Marked: Konsentrasjon
CNN, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Coase, Ronald, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
CodePink Women in Peace, Forord, Konklusjon
Coe, Brian, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Comcast, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Commons, John R., Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Conrad, Paul, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Conyers, John, Jr., Kapittel elleve: Chimera
cookies, Internet, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
copyleft licenses, Konklusjon
Country of the Blind, The (Wells), Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Kapittel elleve: Chimera
Creative Commons, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Crichton, Michael, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Crosskey, William W., Loven: Varighet

D

Daguerre, Louis, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Daley, Elizabeth, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
dataspill, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Day After Trinity, The, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne
DDT, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett
Dean, Howard, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Diller, Barry, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Disney, Inc., Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Drahos, Peter, Piratvirksomhet I, Konklusjon
Dreyfuss, Rochelle, «Piratvirksomhet»
Drucker, Peter, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
Dryden, John, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Dylan, Bob, Konklusjon

E

Eagle Forum, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Eastman, George, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Edison, Thomas, Introduksjon

eiendomsrettigheter

lufttrafikk mot, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

Elektronisk forpost-stiftelsen (EFF), Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Corrupting Citizens

EMI, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Constraining Innovators

Erskine, Andrew, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

F

Fallows, James, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Fanning, Shawn, Piratvirksomhet II
Faraday, Michael, Introduksjon
Fisher, William, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Florida, Richard, «Piratvirksomhet»
Forbes, Steve, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
fotografering, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Fourneaux, Henri, Innspilt musikk, Innspilt musikk
Fox, William, Film
Free for All (Wayner), Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Fried, Charles, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Friedman, Milton, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

G

Garlick, Mia, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Gates, Bill, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Konklusjon
General Film Company, Film
Gershwin, George, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Gil, Gilberto, Konklusjon
GNU/Linux-operativsystemet, Piratvirksomhet I, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Goldstein, Paul, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Gracie Films, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne
Grisham, John, Innspilt musikk, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

H

Hal Roach Studios, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Hand, Learned, Radio
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Henry V, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Henry VIII, Konge av England, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Heston, Charlton, Kabel-TV
HIV/AIDS therapies, Konklusjon, Konklusjon
Hollings, Fritz, Constraining Innovators
Hummer Winblad, Constraining Innovators
Hummer, John, Constraining Innovators
Hyde, Rosel H., Kabel-TV

I

IBM, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Intel, Constraining Innovators, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Internet Explorer, Piratvirksomhet I
Iwerks, Ub, Kapittel en: Skaperne

J

Jaszi, Peter, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
jernbaneindustri, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett
Johnson, Lyndon, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Johnson, Samuel, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Jonson, Ben, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

K

Kaplan, Benjamin, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Kelly, Kevin, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Kennedy, John F., Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Constraining Innovators
Kittredge, Alfred, Innspilt musikk
kjørehastighet, begrensninger på, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Kodak Primer, The (Eastman), Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Kozinski, Alex, Piratvirksomhet II
Krim, Jonathan, Konklusjon
kringkastingsflagg, Film, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators
kunst, undergrunns, Constraining Creators

L

landeierskap, lufttrafikk og, Introduksjon, Introduksjon, 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk
Laurel and Hardy Films, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
law schools, Corrupting Citizens
Leaphart, Walter, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Lear, Norman, Marked: Konsentrasjon
legal realist movement, Sammen
Lessing, Lawrence, Introduksjon, Introduksjon
Licensing Act (1662), Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
Liebowitz, Stan, Piratvirksomhet I, Piratvirksomhet II, 5. Spark en masse advokater
Linux-operativsystemet, Piratvirksomhet I, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Litman, Jessica, Introduksjon, Constraining Innovators
Lofgren, Zoe, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Lott, Trent, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
lovbestemte skader, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
Lovett, Lyle, Radio, Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators, Kapittel fjorten: Eldred II
Lucky Dog, The, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
lufttrafikk, landeierskap mot, Introduksjon, Introduksjon

M

Madonna, Radio, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Mansfield, William Murray, Lord, «Piratvirksomhet», «Piratvirksomhet», Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Marijuana Policy Project, Marked: Konsentrasjon

markedsføring, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde, Lov og arkitektur: Rekkevidde, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Marked: Konsentrasjon

markedskonsentrasjon, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett, Constraining Innovators

Marx Brothers, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

McCain, John, Marked: Konsentrasjon

MGM, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Michigan Technical University, Kapittel tre: Kataloger

Microsoft, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

Windows operating system of, Piratvirksomhet I

Milton, John, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

mobiltelefoner, musikk streamet via, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen

Morrison, Alan, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Movie Archive, Kapittel ni: Samlere

Moyers, Bill, Marked: Konsentrasjon

Müller, Paul Hermann, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

N

Nashville Songwriters Association, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
National Writers Union, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
NBC, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Needleman, Rafe, Constraining Innovators
Netanel, Neil Weinstock, Introduksjon, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Netscape, Piratvirksomhet I
Nimmer, David, Kapittel åtte: Omformere
normer, reguleringspåvirkning fra, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

O

O'Connor, Sandra Day, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Olafson, Steve, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Olson, Theodore B., Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Oppenheimer, Matt, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
originalism, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Orwell, George, Kapittel ni: Samlere, Kapittel ni: Samlere

P

Paramount Pictures, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»
Picker, Randal C., Film, Radio, Piratvirksomhet II, Constraining Innovators
PLoS (Public Library of Science), Konklusjon, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Pogue, David, Forord, Forord
Politikk, (Aristotles), Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Princeton University, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
Promises to Keep (Fisher), 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Public Citizen, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Public Enemy, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

Q

Quayle, Dan, Kapittel ni: Samlere

R

rap music, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Reagan, Ronald, Kapittel tretten: Eldred, Konklusjon
Real Networks, Constraining Innovators, 4. Frigjør musikken—igjen
Rehnquist, William H., Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), Kapittel tre: Kataloger, Kapittel tre: Kataloger
Rise of the Creative Class, The (Florida), «Piratvirksomhet»
Roberts, Michael, Constraining Innovators
robothund, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Rogers, Fred, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Rose, Mark, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Takk til
RPI (Se Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI))
Rubenfeld, Jeb, Loven: Virkeområde
Russel, Phil, Innspilt musikk

S

Safire, William, Forord, Konklusjon

San Francisco Opera, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne

Sarnoff, David, Introduksjon

Schlafly, Phyllis, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Shakespeare, William, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Silent Sprint (Carson), Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Sony

Aibo robothund produsert av, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt

Sony Pictures Entertainment, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

Sousa, John Philip, Innspilt musikk

stålindustri, Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

Stallman, Richard, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler

Stanford University, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

Star Wars, Kapittel sju: Innspillerne

Statute of Monopolies (1656), Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Stevens, Ted, Forord

Steward, Geoffrey, Kapittel tretten: Eldred

Supermann-tegneserier, Kapittel en: Skaperne

Sutherland, Donald, Kapittel åtte: Omformere

T

Talbot, William, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Tatel, David, Kapittel tretten: Eldred
Tauzin, Billy, Constraining Innovators
Taylor, Robert, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne
tegnefilmer, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Kapittel en: Skaperne
Thurmond, Strom, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Tocqueville, Alexis de, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Torvalds, Linus, Gjenoppbygging av friheter som tidligere var antatt: Eksempler
Turner, Ted, Konklusjon
Twentieth Century Fox, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

U

Universal Music Group, Marked: Konsentrasjon, Constraining Innovators
Universal Pictures, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom»

V

Vaidhyanathan, Siva, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Film, Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne, Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Sammen
Vanderbilt University, Kapittel ni: Samlere
veteranpensjoner, 2. Kortere vernetid
Vivendi Universal, Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Constraining Innovators, Constraining Innovators
von Lohmann, Fred, Corrupting Citizens

W

Warner Brothers, Kapittel ti: «Eiendom», Arkitektur og lov: Makt, Arkitektur og lov: Makt
Warner Music Group, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Warren, Samuel D., Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Wayner, Peter, Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé
Webster, Noah, Introduksjon
Wellcome Trust, Konklusjon
Wells, H. G., Kapittel elleve: Chimera, Kapittel elleve: Chimera
White House press releases, Kapittel ni: Samlere
Windows, Piratvirksomhet I
Winer, Dave, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere», Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Winick, Judd, Kapittel en: Skaperne, Kapittel en: Skaperne
WJOA, Marked: Konsentrasjon
World Trade Center, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»
Worldcom, Constraining Creators
WRC, Marked: Konsentrasjon
Wright-brødrene, Introduksjon

Y

Yanofsky, Dave, Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Z

Zimmerman, Edwin, Kabel-TV
Zittrain, Jonathan, «Piratvirksomhet», Loven: Virkeområde

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oversettelser, 237 uoversatte meldinger. +2012-08-13T0804 955 oversatte meldinger, 727 antatte oversettelser, 239 uoversatte meldinger. +2012-08-13T0903 958 oversatte meldinger, 727 antatte oversettelser, 239 uoversatte meldinger. -- 2.50.1

Fri kultur

Hvordan store medieaktører bruker teknologi og loven til å låse ned kulturen -og kontrollere kreativiteten

Lawrence Lessig

Lawrence Lessig

Kolofon

Kolofon

Introduksjon

Introduksjon

Del I. «Piratvirksomhet»

Kapittel en: Skaperne

Kapittel to: «Kun etter-apere»

Kapittel tre: Kataloger

Kapittel tre: Kataloger

4.1. Film

4.4. Kabel-TV

4.4. Kabel-TV

5.1. Piratvirksomhet I

5.1. Piratvirksomhet I

5.2. Piratvirksomhet II

Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Kapittel seks: Grunnleggerne

Kapittel åtte: Omformere

Kapittel åtte: Omformere

10.1. Hvorfor Hollywood har rett

10.2. Opphav

10.2. Opphav

10.4. Loven: Virkeområde

10.8. Sammen

10.8. Sammen

Del III. Nøtter

Kapittel elleve: Chimera

16.1.2. Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

16.1.2. Gjenoppbygging av fri kultur: En idé

16.2. Dem, snart

16.2. Dem, snart

16.2.3. 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

16.2.3. 3. Fri Bruk vs. rimelig bruk

Notater

Indeks

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Z

Indeks

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O